Part 1

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE LIGHTHOUSE: "Examples of mercury floats are shown in figs. 41, 42, 43 and Plate I., figs. 54 and 55." 'and' amended from 'an'.

ARTICLE LIGHTHOUSE: "Electricity was substituted as an illuminant for the then existing oil light at St Catherine's in 1888." 'Electricity' amended from 'Elctricity'.

ARTICLE LIGHTING: "They were, however, costly to install, so that the flat flame burner retained its popularity in spite of the fact that its duty was comparatively low ..." 'install' amended from 'instal'.

ARTICLE LIGHTING: "... the filament in the form of a lustrous and dense deposit having an appearance like steel when seen under the microscope." 'microscope' amended from 'miscroscope'.

ARTICLE LIMB: "... or to the subordinate members of the Cinque Ports, attached to one of the principal towns; Pevensey was thus a 'limb' of Hastings." 'subordinate' amended from 'surbordinate'.

ARTICLE LIMON: "Its chief towns, after Limon, are Reventazon and Matina, both with fewer than 3000 inhabitants." 'fewer' amended from 'fever'.

ARTICLE LIMOUSIN: "Limousin takes its name from the Lemovices, a Gallic tribe whose county was included by Augustus in the province of Aquitania Magna." 'Aquitania' amended from 'Aquitanic'.

ARTICLE LIPSIUS, JUSTUS: "He then returned to Louvain, but was soon driven by the Civil War to take refuge in Antwerp, where he received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded university of Leiden, as professor of history." 'Louvain' amended from 'Louvian'.

ARTICLE LIPSIUS, JUSTUS: "He died at Louvain on the 23rd of March (some give 24th of April) 1606." 'Louvain' amended from 'Louvian'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XVI, SLICE VI

Lightfoot, Joseph to Liquidation

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER LINDAU, PAUL LIGHTHOUSE LINDAU LIGHTING LINDEN LIGHTNING LINDESAY, ROBERT LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR LINDET, JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF LINDLEY, JOHN LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH LINDLEY, NATHANIEL LINDLEY LIGNITE LINDLEY, WILLIAM LIGONIER, JOHN LIGONIER LINDO, MARK PRAGER LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI LINDSAY (family) LIGURES BAEBIANI LINDSAY (town of Canada) LIGURIA LINDSEY, THEOPHILUS LI HUNG CHANG LINDSTRÖM, GUSTAF LILAC LINDUS LILBURNE, JOHN LINE LILIACEAE LINE ENGRAVING LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON LINEN and LINEN MANUFACTURES LILITH LINEN-PRESS LILLE LINER LILLEBONNE LING, PER HENRIK LILLIBULLERO LING LILLO, GEORGE LINGARD, JOHN LILLY, WILLIAM LINGAYAT LILOAN LINGAYEN LILY LINGEN, RALPH ROBERT WHEELER LINGEN LILYE, WILLIAM LINGEN LIMA (Ohio, U.S.A.) LINGUET, SIMON NICHOLAS HENRI LIMA (department of Peru) LINK LIMA (capital of Peru) LINKÖPING LIMAÇON LINLEY, THOMAS LIMASOL LINLITHGOW, JOHN ADRIAN LOUIS HOPE LIMB LINLITHGOW LIMBACH LINLITHGOWSHIRE LIMBER LINNAEUS LIMBORCH, PHILIPP VAN LINNELL, JOHN LIMBURG (feudal state) LINNET LIMBURG (province of Belgium) LINSANG LIMBURG (town of Germany) LINSEED LIMBURG (province of Holland) LINSTOCK LIMBURG CHRONICLE LINT LIMBURGITE LINTEL LIMBUS LINTH LIME (exudation of holly-tree) LINTON, ELIZA LYNN LIME (tree) LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES LIMERICK (county of Ireland) LINTOT, BARNABY BERNARD LIMERICK (city of Ireland) LINUS (Gregorian saint) LIMERICK (form of verse) LINUS (Greek heroic figure) LIMES GERMANICUS LINZ LIMESTONE LION LIMINA APOSTOLORUM LIONNE, HUGUES DE LIMITATION, STATUTES OF LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE LIMOGES LIP LIMON LIPA LIMONITE LIPAN LIMOUSIN, LÉONARD LIPARI ISLANDS LIMOUSIN LIPETSK LIMPOPO LIPPE (river of Germany) LINACRE, THOMAS LIPPE (principality of Germany) LINARES (province of Chile) LIPPI LINARES (town of Spain) LIPPSPRINGE LINCOLN, EARLS OF LIPPSTADT LINCOLN, ABRAHAM LIPSIUS, JUSTUS LINCOLN (England) LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT LINCOLN (Illinois, U.S.A.) LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE LINCOLN (Nebraska, U.S.A.) LIQUEURS LINCOLN JUDGMENT, THE LIQUIDAMBAR LINCOLNSHIRE LIQUIDATION LIND, JENNY

LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889), English theologian and bishop of Durham, was born at Liverpool on the 13th of April 1828. His father was a Liverpool accountant. He was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop of Manchester, and had as contemporaries B. F. Westcott and E. W. Benson. In 1847 Lightfoot went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there read for his degree with Westcott. He graduated senior classic and 30th wrangler, and was elected a fellow of his college. From 1854 to 1859 he edited the _Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology_. In 1857 he became tutor and his fame as a scholar grew rapidly. He was made Hulsean professor in 1861, and shortly afterwards chaplain to the Prince Consort and honorary chaplain in ordinary to the queen. In 1866 he was Whitehall preacher, and in 1871 he became canon of St Paul's. His sermons were not remarkable for eloquence, but a certain solidity and balance of judgment, an absence of partisanship, a sobriety of expression combined with clearness and force of diction, attracted hearers and inspired them with confidence. As was written of him in _The Times_ after his death, "his personal character carried immense weight, but his great position depended still more on the universally recognized fact that his belief in Christian truth and his defence of it were supported by learning as solid and comprehensive as could be found anywhere in Europe, and by a temper not only of the utmost candour but of the highest scientific capacity. The days in which his university influence was asserted were a time of much shaking of old beliefs. The disintegrating speculations of an influential school of criticism in Germany were making their way among English men of culture just about the time, as is usually the case, when the tide was turning against them in their own country. The peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the 'Cambridge School' was that, instead of opposing a mere dogmatic opposition to the Tübingen critics, they met them frankly on their own ground; and instead of arguing that their conclusions ought not to be and could not be true, they simply proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong. It was a characteristic of equal importance that Dr Lightfoot, like Dr Westcott, never discussed these subjects in the mere spirit of controversy. It was always patent that what he was chiefly concerned with was the substance and the life of Christian truth, and that his whole energies were employed in this inquiry because his whole heart was engaged in the truths and facts which were at stake. He was not diverted by controversy to side-issues; and his labour was devoted to the positive elucidation of the sacred documents in which the Christian truth is enshrined."

In 1872 the anonymous publication of _Supernatural Religion_ created considerable sensation. In a series of masterly papers in the _Contemporary Review_, between December 1874 and May 1877, Lightfoot successfully undertook the defence of the New Testament canon. The articles were published in collected form in 1889. About the same time he was engaged in contributions to W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_, and he also joined the committee for revising the translation of the New Testament. In 1875 he became Lady Margaret professor of divinity in succession to William Selwyn. He had previously written his commentaries on the epistles to the Galatians (1865), Philippians (1868) and Colossians (1875), the notes to which were distinguished by sound judgment and enriched from his large store of patristic and classical learning. These commentaries may be described as to a certain extent a new departure in New Testament exegesis. Before Lightfoot's time commentaries, especially on the epistles, had not infrequently consisted either of short homilies on particular portions of the text, or of endeavours to enforce foregone conclusions, or of attempts to decide with infinite industry and ingenuity between the interpretations of former commentators. Lightfoot, on the contrary, endeavoured to make his author interpret himself, and by considering the general drift of his argument to discover his meaning where it appeared doubtful. Thus he was able often to recover the meaning of a passage which had long been buried under a heap of contradictory glosses, and he founded a school in which sobriety and common sense were added to the industry and ingenuity of former commentators. In 1879 Lightfoot was consecrated bishop of Durham in succession to C. Baring. His moderation, good sense, wisdom, temper, firmness and erudition made him as successful in this position as he had been when professor of theology, and he speedily surrounded himself with a band of scholarly young men. He endeavoured to combine his habits of theological study with the practical work of administration. He exercised a large liberality and did much to further the work of temperance and purity organizations. He continued to work at his editions of the _Apostolic Fathers_, and in 1885 published an edition of the Epistles of Ignatius and Polycarp, collecting also a large store of valuable materials for a second edition of Clement of Rome, which was published after his death (1st ed., 1869). His defence of the authenticity of the Epistles of Ignatius is one of the most important contributions to that very difficult controversy. His unremitting labours impaired his health and shortened his splendid career at Durham. He was never married. He died at Bournemouth on the 21st of December 1889, and was succeeded in the episcopate by Westcott, his schoolfellow and lifelong friend.

Four volumes of his _Sermons_ were published in 1890.

LIGHTHOUSE, a form of building erected to carry a light for the purpose of warning or guidance, especially at sea.

1. EARLY HISTORY.--The earliest lighthouses, of which records exist, were the towers built by the Libyans and Cushites in Lower Egypt, beacon fires being maintained in some of them by the priests. Lesches, a Greek poet (c. 660 B.C.) mentions a lighthouse at Sigeum (now Cape Incihisari) in the Troad. This appears to have been the first light regularly maintained for the guidance of mariners. The famous Pharos[1] of Alexandria, built by Sostratus of Cnidus in the reign of Ptolemy II. (283-247 B.C.) was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. The tower, which took its name from that of the small island on which it was built, is said to have been 600 ft. in height, but the evidence in support of this statement is doubtful. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century, but remains are said to have been visible as late as 1350. The name Pharos became the general term for all lighthouses, and the term "pharology" has been used for the science of lighthouse construction.

The tower at Ostia was built by the emperor Claudius (A.D. 50). Other famous Roman lighthouses were those at Ravenna, Pozzuoli and Messina. The ancient Pharos at Dover and that at Boulogne, later known as _la Tour d'Ordre_, were built by the Romans and were probably the earliest lighthouses erected in western Europe. Both are now demolished.

The light of Cordouan, on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the Gironde, is the earliest example now existing of a wave-swept tower. Earlier towers on the same rock are attributed the first to Louis le Debonnaire (c. A.D. 805) and the second to Edward the Black Prince. The existing structure was begun in 1584 during the reign of Henri II. of France and completed in 1611. The upper part of the beautiful Renaissance building was removed towards the end of the 18th century and replaced by a loftier cylindrical structure rising to a height of 207 ft. above the rock and with the focal plane of the light 196 ft. above high water (fig. 1). Until the 18th century the light exhibited from the tower was from an oak log fire, and subsequently a coal fire was in use for many years. The ancient tower at Corunna, known as the Pillar of Hercules, is supposed to have been a Roman Pharos. The Torre del Capo at Genoa originally stood on the promontory of San Berrique. It was built in 1139 and first used as a lighthouse in 1326. It was rebuilt on its present site in 1643. This beautiful tower rises 236 ft. above the cliff, the light being elevated 384 ft. above sea-level. A lens light was first installed in 1841. The Pharos of Meloria was constructed by the Pisans in 1154 and was several times rebuilt until finally destroyed in 1290. On the abandonment of Meloria by the Pisans, they erected the still existing tower at Leghorn in 1304.

In the 17th and 18th centuries numerous towers, on which were erected braziers or grates containing wood or coal fires, were established in various positions on the coasts of Europe. Among such stations in the United Kingdom were Tynemouth (c. 1608), the Isle of May (1636), St Agnes (1680), St Bees (1718) and the Lizard (1751). The oldest lighthouse in the United States is believed to be the Boston light situated on Little Brewster Island on the south side of the main entrance to Boston Harbour, Mass. It was established in 1716, the present structure dating from 1859. During the American War of Independence the lighthouse suffered many vicissitudes and was successively destroyed and rebuilt three times by the American or British forces. At the third rebuilding in 1783 a stone tower 68 ft. in height was erected, the illuminant consisting of four oil lamps. Other early lighthouse structures on the New England coast were those at Beaver Tail, near the entrance to Newport Harbour (1740), and the Brant at the entrance to Nantucket Harbour (1754). A watch-house and beacon appear to have been erected on Beacon or Lighthouse Island as well as on Point Allerton Hill near Boston, prior to 1673, but these structures would seem to have been in the nature of look-out stations in time of war rather than lighthouses for the guidance of mariners.

2. LIGHTHOUSE STRUCTURES.--The structures of lighthouses may be divided into two classes, (a) those on rocks, shoals or in other situations exposed to the force of the sea, and (b) the more numerous class of land structures.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Cordouan Lighthouse.]

_Wave-swept Towers._--In determining the design of a lighthouse tower to be erected in a wave-swept position consideration must be given to the physical features of the site and its surroundings. Towers of this description are classified as follows: (1) Masonry and concrete structures; (2) Openwork steel and iron-framed erections on pile or other foundations; (3) Cast iron plated towers; (4) Structures erected on cylinder foundations.

(1) _Masonry Towers._--Masonry or concrete towers are generally preferred for erection on wave-swept rocks affording good foundation, and have also been constructed in other situations where adequate foundations have been made by sinking caissons into a soft sea bed. Smeaton's tower on the Eddystone Rock is the model upon which most later designs of masonry towers have been based, although many improvements in detail have since been made. In situations of great exposure the following requirements in design should be observed: (a) The centre of gravity of the tower structure should be as low as possible. (b) The mass of the structure superimposed at any horizontal section must be sufficient to prevent its displacement by the combined forces of wind and waves without dependence on the adhesion at horizontal joint faces or on the dovetailing of stones introduced as an additional safeguard. (c) The structure should be circular in plan throughout, this form affording the least resistance to wave stroke and wind pressure in any direction. (d) The lower portion of the tower exposed to the direct horizontal stroke of the waves should, for preference, be constructed with vertical face. The upper portion to be either straight with uniform batter or continuously curved in the vertical plane. External projections from the face of the tower, except in the case of a gallery under the lantern, should be avoided, the surface throughout being smooth. (e) The height from sea-level to the top of the tower should be sufficient to avoid the obscuration of the light by broken water or dense spray driving over the lantern. (f) The foundation of the tower should be carried well into the solid rock. (g) The materials of which the tower is built should be of high density and of resistant nature. (h) The stones used in the construction of the tower, at any rate those on the outer face, should be dovetailed or joggled one to the other in order to prevent their being dislodged by the sea during the process of construction and as an additional safeguard of stability. Of late years, cement concrete has been used to a considerable extent for maritime structures, including lighthouses, either alone or faced with masonry.

(2) _Openwork Structures._--Many examples of openwork steel and iron lighthouses exist. Some typical examples are described hereafter. This form of design is suitable for situations where the tower has to be carried on a foundation of iron or steel piles driven or screwed into an insecure or sandy bottom, such as on shoals, coral reefs and sand banks or in places where other materials of construction are exceptionally costly and where facility of erection is a desideratum.

(3) _Cast iron Towers._--Cast iron plated towers have been erected in many situations where the cost of stone or scarcity of labour would have made the erection of a masonry tower excessively expensive.

(4) _Caisson Foundations._--Cylinder or caisson foundations have been used for lighthouse towers in numerous cases where such structures have been erected on sand banks or shoals. A remarkable instance is the Rothersand Tower. Two attempts have been made to sink a caisson in the outer Diamond Shoal off Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of the United States, but these have proved futile.

The following are brief descriptions of the more important wave-swept towers in various parts of the world.

_Eddystone_ (_Winstanley's Tower_).--The Eddystone rocks, which lie about 14 m. off Plymouth, are fully exposed to south-west seas. The reef is submerged at high water of spring tides. Four towers have been constructed on the reef. The first lighthouse (fig. 2) was polygonal in plan and highly ornamented with galleries and projections which offered considerable resistance to the sea stroke. The work was begun by Henry Winstanley, a gentleman of Essex, in 1695. In 1698 it was finished to a height of 80 ft. to the wind vane and the light exhibited, but in the following year, in consequence of damage by storms, the tower was increased in diameter from 16 ft. to 24 ft. by the addition of an outer ring of masonry and made solid to a height of 20 ft. above the rock, the tower being raised to nearly 120 ft. The work was completed in the year 1700. The lower part of the structure appears to have been of stone, the upper part and lantern of timber. During the great storm of the 20th of November 1703 the tower was swept away, those in it at the time, including the builder, being drowned.

_Eddystone_ (_Rudyerd's Tower_, fig. 3).--This structure was begun in 1706 and completed in 1709. It was a frustum of a cone 22 ft. 8 in. in diameter at the base and 14 ft. 3 in. at the top. The tower was 92 ft. in height to the top of the lantern. The work consisted principally of oak timbers securely bolted and cramped together, the lower part being filled in solid with stone to add weight to the structure. The simplicity of the design and the absence of projections from the outer face rendered the tower very suitable to withstand the onslaught of the waves. The lighthouse was destroyed by fire in 1755.

_Eddystone_ (_Smeaton's Tower_, fig. 4).--This famous work, which consisted entirely of stone, was begun in 1756, the light being first exhibited in 1759. John Smeaton was the first engineer to use dovetailed joints for the stones in a lighthouse structure. The stones, which averaged 1 ton in weight, were fastened to each other by means of dovetailed vertical joint faces, oak key wedges, and by oak tree-nails wedged top and bottom, extending vertically from every course into the stones beneath it. During the 19th century the tower was strengthened on two occasions by the addition of heavy wrought iron ties, and the overhanging cornice was reduced in diameter to prevent the waves from lifting the stones from their beds. In 1877, owing partly to the undermining of the rock on which the tower was built and the insufficient height of the structure, the Corporation of Trinity House determined on the erection of a new lighthouse in place of Smeaton's tower.

[Illustration: FIG. 2. Winstanley 1699

FIG. 3. Rudyerd 1706

FIG. 4. Smeaton 1756

FIG. 5. Sir J. N. Douglass 1882

Lighthouses on the Eddystone.]