Part 20

In the Church of England the practice has been less consistent. The first Prayer-book of Edward VI. directed two lights to be placed on the altar. This direction was omitted in the second Prayer-book; but the "Ornaments Rubric" of Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book seemed again to make them obligatory. The question of how far this did so is a much-disputed one and is connected with the whole problem of the meaning and scope of the rubric (see VESTMENTS). An equal uncertainty reigns with regard to the actual usage of the Church of England from the Reformation onwards. Lighted candles certainly continued to decorate the holy table in Queen Elizabeth's chapel, to the scandal of Protestant zealots. They also seem to have been retained, at least for a while, in certain cathedral and collegiate churches. There is, however, no mention of ceremonial candles in the detailed account of the services of the Church of England given by William Harrison (_Description of England_, 1570); and the attitude of the Church towards their use, until the ritualistic movement of the 17th century, would seem to be authoritatively expressed in the _Third Part of the Sermon against Peril of Idolatry_, which quotes with approval the views of Lactantius and compares "our Candle Religion" with the "Gentiles Idolators." This pronouncement, indeed, though it certainly condemns the use of ceremonial lights in most of its later developments, and especially the conception of them as votive offerings whether to God or to the saints, does not necessarily exclude, though it undoubtedly discourages, their purely symbolical use.[20] In this connexion it is worth pointing out that the homily against idolatry was reprinted, without alteration and by the king's authority, long after altar lights had been restored under the influence of the high church party supreme at court. Illegal under the Act of Uniformity they seem never to have been. The use of "wax lights and tapers" formed one of the indictments brought by P. Smart, a Puritan prebendary of Durham, against Dr Burgoyne, Cosin and others for setting up "superstitious ceremonies" in the cathedral "contrary to the Act of Uniformity." The indictments were dismissed in 1628 by Sir James Whitelocke, chief justice of Chester and a judge of the King's Bench, and in 1629 by Sir Henry Yelverton, a judge of Common Pleas and himself a strong Puritan (see _Hierurgia Anglicana_, ii pp. 230 seq.). The use of ceremonial lights was among the indictments in the impeachment of Laud and other bishops by the House of Commons, but these were not based on the Act of Uniformity. From the Restoration onwards the use of ceremonial lights, though far from universal, was not unusual in cathedrals and collegiate churches.[21] It was not, however, till the ritual revival of the 19th century that their use was at all widely extended in parish churches. The growing custom met with fierce opposition; the law was appealed to, and in 1872 the Privy Council declared altar lights to be illegal (_Martin_ v. _Mackonochie_). This judgment, founded as was afterwards admitted on insufficient knowledge, produced no effect; and, in the absence of any authoritative pronouncement, advantage was taken of the ambiguous language of the Ornaments Rubric to introduce into many churches practically the whole ceremonial use of lights as practised in the pre-Reformation Church. The matter was again raised in the case of _Read and others_ v. _the Bishop of Lincoln_ (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), one of the counts of the indictment being that the bishop had, during the celebration of Holy Communion, allowed two candles to be alight on a shelf or retable behind the communion table when they were not necessary for giving light. The archbishop of Canterbury, in whose court the case was heard (1889), decided that the mere presence of two candles on the table, burning during the service but lit before it began, was lawful under the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI. and had never been made unlawful. On the case being appealed to the Privy Council, this particular indictment was dismissed on the ground that the vicar, not the bishop, was responsible for the presence of the lights, the general question of the legality of altar lights being discreetly left open.

The custom of placing lighted candles round the bodies of the dead, especially when "lying in state," has never wholly died out in Protestant countries, though their significance has long been lost sight of.[22] In the 18th century, moreover, it was still customary in England to accompany a funeral with lighted tapers. Picart (_op. cit._ 1737) gives a plate representing a funeral cortège preceded and accompanied by boys, each carrying four lighted candles in a branched candlestick. There seems to be no record of candles having been carried in other processions in England since the Reformation. The usage in this respect in some "ritualistic" churches is a revival of pre-Reformation ceremonial.

See the article "Lucerna," by J. Toutain in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dict. des antiquités grecques et romaines_ (Paris, 1904); J. Marquardt, "Römische Privatalterthümer" (vol. v. of Becker's _Röm. Alterthümer_), ii. 238-301; article "Cièrges et lampes," in the Abbé J. A. Martigny's _Dict. des Antiquités Chrétiennes_ (Paris, 1865); the articles "Lichter" and "Koimetarien" (pp. 834 seq.) in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1901); the article "Licht" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901), an excellent exposition of the symbolism from the Catholic point of view, also "Kerze" and "Lichter"; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, _Dict. of Chr. Antiquities_ (London, 1875-1880), i. 939 seq.; in all these numerous further references will be found. See also Mühlbauer, _Gesch. u. Bedeutung der Wachslichter bei den kirchlichen Funktionen_ (Augsburg, 1874); V. Thalhofer, _Handbuch der Katholischen Liturgik_ (Freiburg-i.-B., 1887), i. 666 seq.; and, for the post-Reformation use in the Church of England, _Hierurgia Anglicana_, new ed. by Vernon Staley (London, 1903). (W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "O Fire, thou knowest all things!" See A. Bourquin, "Brahma-karma, ou rites sacrés des Brahmans," in the _Annales du Musée Guimet_ (Paris, 1884, t. vii.).

[2] J. Toutain, in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire, s.v._ "Lucerna."

[3] This is quoted with approval by Bishop Jewel in the homily _Against Peril of Idolatry_ (see below).

[4] This symbolism--whatever it was--was not pagan, i.e. the lamps were not placed in the graves as part of the furniture of the dead--in the Catacombs they are found only in the niches of the galleries and the arcosolia--nor can they have been votive in the sense popularized later.

[5] "Clara coronantur densis altaria lychnis" (_Poem. De S. Felice natalitium_, xiv. 99, in Migne, _Patr. lat._ lxi. 467).

[6] "Continuum scyphus est argenteus aptus ad usum."

[7] "Sal, ignis et oleum" (Lib. i. Tract. xiv. 4, in Migne, xi. 358).

[8] _In sanct. Pasch._ c. 2; Migne, _Patr. graeca_, xxxvi. 624.

[9] [Greek: phôta t' ephapsantes kyklô epi skeuôn chrysôn, thaumaston theama tois horôsi pareichon] (_Vita Constantini_, iv. 66).

[10] "Cum alii Pontifices lampadàs cereosque proferrent, alii choras psallentium ducerent" (Ep. cviii. _ad Eustochium virginem_, in Migne).

[11] This may be the paschal candle only. In some codices the text runs: "Per parochias concessit licentiam benedicendi Cereum Paschalem" (Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Cereum Paschale"). In the three variants of the notice of Zosimus given in Duchesne's edition of the _Lib. pontif._ (1886-1892) the word _cera_ is, however, alone used. Nor does the text imply that he gave to the suburbican churches a privilege hitherto exercised by the metropolitan church. The passage runs: "Hic constituit ut diaconi leva tecta haberent de palleis linostimis per parrochias et ut cera benedicatur," &c. _Per parrochias_ here obviously refers to the head-gear of the deacons, not to the candles.

[12] See also the _Peregrinatio Sylviae_ (386), 86, &c., for the use of lights at Jerusalem, and Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vii. 12; xx. 10) for the usage in the West. That even in the 7th century the blessing of candles was by no means universal is proved by the 9th canon of the council of Toledo (671), "De benedicendo cereo et lucerna in privilegiis Paschae." This canon states that candles and lamps are not blessed in some churches, and that inquiries have been made why _we_ do it. In reply, the council decides that it should be done to celebrate the mystery of Christ's resurrection. See Isidore of Seville, _Conc._, in Migne, _Pat. lat._ lxxxiv. 369.

[13] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Candela."

[14] Bees were believed, like fish, to be sexless.

[15] "Venerandis compactam elementis facem tibi, Domine, mancipamus: in qua trium copula munerum primum de impari numero complacebit: quae quod gratis Deo veniat auctoribus, non habetur incertum: unum quod de fetibus fluminum accedunt nutrimenta flammarum: aliud quod apum tribuit intemerata fecunditas, in quarum partibus nulla partitur damna virginitas: ignis etiam coelo infusus adhibetur" (_Opusc._ x. in Migne, _Patr. lat._ t. lxiii.).

[16] All three conceptions are brought out in the prayers for the blessing of candles on the Feast of the Purification of the B.V.M. (Candlemas, q.v.). (1) "O holy Lord, ... who ... by the command didst cause this liquid to come by the labour of bees to the perfection of wax, ... we beseech thee ... to bless and sanctify these candles for the use of men, and the health of bodies and souls...." (2) "... these candles, which we thy servants desire to carry lighted to magnify thy name; that by offering them to thee, being worthily inflamed with the holy fire of thy most sweet charity, we may deserve," &c. (3) "O Lord Jesus Christ, the true light, ... mercifully grant, that as these lights enkindled with visible fire dispel nocturnal darkness, so our hearts illumined by invisible fire," &c. (_Missale Rom._). In the form for the blessing of candles _extra diem Purificationis B. Mariae Virg._ the virtue of the consecrated candles in discomfiting demons is specially brought out: "that in whatever places they may be lighted, or placed, the princes of darkness may depart, and tremble, and may fly terror-stricken with all their ministers from those habitations, nor presume further to disquiet and molest those who serve thee, Almighty God" (_Rituale Rom._).

[17] Altar candlesticks consist of five parts: the foot, stem, knob in the centre, bowl to catch the drippings, and pricket (a sharp point on which the candle is fixed). It is permissible to use a long tube, pointed to imitate a candle, in which is a small taper forced to the top by a spring (_Cong. Rit._, 11th May 1878).

[18] This is common to the Eastern Church also. Pilgrims from all parts of the East flock to Jerusalem to obtain the "new fire" on Easter Eve at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Here the fire is supposed to be miraculously sent from heaven. The rush of the pilgrims to kindle their lights at it is so great, that order is maintained with difficulty by Mahommedan soldiers.

[19] The origin of the Paschal Candle is lost in the mists of antiquity. According to the abbé Châtelain (quoted in Diderot's _Encyclopédie, s.v._ "Cièrge") the Paschal Candle was not originally a candle at all, but a wax column on which the dates of the movable feasts were inscribed. These were later written on paper and fixed to the Paschal Candle, a custom which in his day survived in the Cluniac churches.

[20] This homily, written by Bishop Jewel, is largely founded on Bullinger's _De origine erroris in Divinorum et sacrorum cultu_ (1528, 1539).

[21] A copper-plate in Bernard Picart's _Ceremonies and Religious Customs of the Various Nations_ (Eng. trans., London, 1737), vi. pt. 1, p. 78, illustrating an Anglican Communion service at St Paul's, shows two lighted candles on the holy table.

[22] In some parts of Scotland it is still customary to place two lighted candles on a table beside a corpse on the day of burial.

LIGNE, CHARLES JOSEPH, PRINCE DE (1735-1814), soldier and writer, came of a princely family of Hainaut, and was born at Brussels in 1735. As an Austrian subject he entered the imperial army at an early age. He distinguished himself by his valour in the Seven Years' War, notably at Breslau, Leuthen, Hochkirch and Maxen, and after the war rose rapidly to the rank of lieutenant field marshal. He became the intimate friend and counsellor of the emperor Joseph II., and, inheriting his father's vast estates, lived in the greatest splendour and luxury till the War of the Bavarian Succession brought him again into active service. This war was short and uneventful, and the prince then travelled in England, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and France, devoting himself impartially to the courts, the camps, the salons and the learned assemblies of philosophers and scientists in each country. In 1784 he was again employed in military work, and was promoted to Feldzeugmeister. In 1787 he was with Catherine II. in Russia, accompanied her in her journey to the Crimea, and was made a Russian field marshal by the empress. In 1788 he was present at the siege of Belgrade. Shortly after this he was invited to place himself at the head of the Belgian revolutionary movement, in which one of his sons and many of his relatives were prominent, but declined with great courtesy, saying that "he never revolted in the winter." Though suspected by Joseph of collusion with the rebels, the two friends were not long estranged, and after the death of the emperor the prince remained in Vienna. His Brabant estates were overrun by the French in 1792-1793, and his eldest son killed in action at La Croix-du-Bois in the Argonne (September 14, 1792). He was given the rank of field marshal (1809) and an honorary command at court, living in spite of the loss of his estates in comparative luxury and devoting himself to literary work. He lived long enough to characterize the proceedings of the congress of Vienna with the famous _mot_: "Le Congrès danse mais ne marche pas." He died at Vienna on the 13th of December 1814. His grandson, Eugene Lamoral de Ligne (1804-1880), was a distinguished Belgian statesman.

His collected works appeared in thirty-four volumes at Vienna during the last years of his life (_Mélanges militaires_, _littéraires_, _sentimentaires_), and he bequeathed his manuscripts to the emperor's Trabant Guard, of which he was captain (_Oeuvres posthumes_, Dresden and Vienna, 1817). Selections were published in French and German (_Oeuvres choisies de M. le prince de Ligne_ (Paris, 1809); _Lettres et pensées du Maréchal Prince de Ligne_, ed. by Madame de Staël (1809); _Oeuvres historiques, littéraires ... correspondance et poésies diverses_ (Brussels, 1859); _Des Prinzen Karl von Ligne militärische Werke_, ed. Count Pappenheim (Sulzbach, 1814). The most important of his numerous works on all military subjects is the _Fantaisies et préjugés militaires_, which originally appeared in 1780. A modern edition is that published by J. Dumaine (Paris, 1879). A German version (_Militärische Vorurtheile und Phantasien_, &c.) appeared as early as 1783. This work, though it deals lightly and cavalierly with the most important subjects (the prince even proposes to found an international academy of the art of war, wherein the reputation of generals could be impartially weighed), is a military classic, and indispensable to the students of the post-Frederician period. On the whole, it may be said that the prince adhered to the school of Guibert (q.v.), and a full discussion will be found in Max Jähns' _Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften_, iii. 2091 et seq. Another very celebrated work by the prince is the mock autobiography of Prince Eugene (1809).

See _Revue de Bruxelles_ (October 1839); Reiffenberg, "Le Feldmaréchal Prince Charles Joseph de Ligne," _Mémoires de l'académie de Bruxelles_, vol. xix.; Peetermans, _Le Prince de Ligne, ou un écrivain grand seigneur_ (Liége, 1857), _Études et notices historiques concernant l'histoire des Pays Bas_, vol. iii. (Brussels, 1890); _Mémoires et publications de la Société des Sciences, &c. du Hainault_, vol. iii., 5th series; Dublet _Le Prince de Ligne et ses contemporains_ (Paris, 1889), Wurzbach, _Biogr. Lexikon d. Kaiserth. Österr_. (Vienna, 1858); Hirtenfeld, _Der Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden_, vol. i. (Vienna, 1857), Ritter von Rettersberg, _Biogr. d. ausgezeichnetsten Feldherren_ (Prague, 1829); Schweigerd, _Österr. Helden_, vol. iii. (Vienna, 1854); Thürheim, _F. M. Karl Joseph Fürst de Ligne_ (Vienna, 1877).

LIGNITE (Lat. _lignum_, wood), an imperfectly formed coal, usually brownish in colour, and always showing the structure of the wood from which it was derived (see COAL).

LIGONIER, JOHN (JEAN LOUIS) LIGONIER, EARL (1680-1770), British Field Marshal, came of a Huguenot family of Castres in the south of France, members of which emigrated to England at the close of the 17th century. He entered the army as a volunteer under Marlborough. From 1702 to 1710 he was engaged, with distinction, in nearly every important battle and siege of the war. He was one of the first to mount the breach at the siege of Liége, commanded a company at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim, and was present at Menin (where he led the storming of the covered way), Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet (where he received twenty-three bullets through his clothing and remained unhurt). In 1712 he became governor of Fort St Philip, Minorca, and in 1718 was adjutant-general of the troops employed in the Vigo expedition, where he led the stormers of Fort Marin. Two years later he became colonel of the "Black Horse" (now 7th Dragoon Guards), a command which he retained for 29 years. His regiment soon attained an extraordinary degree of efficiency. He was made brigadier-general in 1735, major-general in 1739, and accompanied Lord Stair in the Rhine Campaign of 1742-1743. George II. made him a Knight of the Bath on the field of Dettingen. At Fontenoy Ligonier commanded the British foot, and acted throughout the battle as adviser to the duke of Cumberland. During the "Forty-Five" he was called home to command the British army in the Midlands, but in January 1746 was placed at the head of the British and British-paid contingents of the Allied army in the Low Countries. He was present at Roucoux (11th Oct. 1746), and, as general of horse, at Val (1st July 1747), where he led the last charge of the British cavalry. In this encounter his horse was killed, and he was taken prisoner, but was exchanged in a few days. With the close of the campaign ended Ligonier's active career, but (with a brief interval in 1756-1757) he occupied various high civil and military posts to the close of his life. In 1757 he was made, in rapid succession, commander-in-chief, colonel of the 1st Foot Guards (now Grenadier Guards), and a peer of Ireland under the title of Viscount Ligonier of Enniskillen, a title changed in 1762 for that of Clonmell. From 1759 to 1762 he was master-general of the Ordnance, and in 1763 he became Baron, and in 1766 Earl, in the English peerage. In the latter year he became field marshal. He died in 1770. His younger brother, Francis, was also a distinguished soldier; and his son succeeded to the Irish peerage of Lord Ligonier.

See Combes, _J. L. Ligonier, une étude_ (Castres, 1866), and the histories of the 7th Dragoon Guards and Grenadier Guards.

LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787), saint and doctor of the Church of Rome, was born at Marianella, near Naples, on the 27th of September 1696, being the son of Giuseppe dei Liguori, a Neapolitan noble. He began life at the bar, where he obtained considerable practice; but the loss of an important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan noble against the grand duke of Tuscany, and in which he had entirely mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him that he withdrew from the legal world. In 1726 he entered the Congregation of Missions as a novice, and became a priest in 1726. In 1732 he founded the "Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer" at Scala, near Salerno; the headquarters of the Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei Pagani. Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists, devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more especially in country districts; Liguori specially forbade them to undertake secular educational work. In 1750 appeared his celebrated devotional book on the _Glories of Mary_; three years later came his still more celebrated treatise on moral theology. In 1755 this was much enlarged and translated into Latin under the title of _Homo Apostolicus_. In 1762, at the express desire of the pope, he accepted the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, a small town in the province of Benevent; though he had previously refused the archbishopric of Palermo. Here he worked diligently at practical reforms, being specially anxious to raise the standard of clerical life and work. In 1775 he resigned his bishopric on the plea of enfeebled health; he retired to his Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787. In 1796 Pius VI. declared him "venerable"; he was beatified by Pius VII. in 1816, canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839, and finally declared one of the nineteen "Doctors of the Church" by Pius IX. in 1871.