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[Illustration: “TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.”

This picture explains and is symbolic of the most progressive one hundred years in history. In the center stands the beautiful female figure typifying Industry. To the right are the goddesses of Music, Electricity, Literature and Art. Navigation is noted in the anchor and chain leaning against the capstan; the Railroad, in the rails and cross-ties; Machinery, in the cog-wheels, steam governor, etc.; Labor, in the brawny smiths at the anvil; Pottery, in the ornamented vase; Architecture, in the magnificent Roman columns; Science, in the figure with quill in hand. In the back of picture are suggestions of the progress and development of our wonderful navy. Above all hovers the angel of Fame ready to crown victorious Genius and Labor with the laurel wreaths of Success. ]

TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE 19TH CENTURY

THE TRUE MIRROR OF A PHENOMENAL ERA

A VOLUME OF ORIGINAL, ENTERTAINING AND INSTRUCTIVE HISTORIC AND DESCRIPTIVE WRITINGS, SHOWING THE MANY AND MARVELLOUS ACHIEVEMENTS WHICH DISTINGUISH

AN HUNDRED YEARS OF Material, Intellectual, Social and Moral Progress

EMBRACING AS SUBJECTS ALL THOSE WHICH BEST TYPE THE GENIUS, SPIRIT AND ENERGY OF THE AGE, AND SERVE TO BRING INTO BRIGHTEST RELIEF THE GRAND MARCH OF IMPROVEMENT IN THE VARIOUS DOMAINS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY.

BY JAMES P. BOYD, A.M., L.B.,

_Assisted by a Corps of Thirty-Two Eminent and Specially Qualified Authors._

Copiously and Magnificently Illustrated.

[Illustration]

PHILADELPHIA A. J. HOLMAN & CO.

INTRODUCTORY

Measuring epochs, or eras, by spaces of a hundred years each, that which embraces the nineteenth century stands out in sublime and encouraging contrast with any that has preceded it. As the legatee of all prior centuries, it has enlarged and ennobled its bequest to an extent unparalleled in history; while it has at the same time, through a genius and energy peculiar to itself, created an original endowment for its own enjoyment and for the future richer by far than any heretofore recorded. Indeed, without permitting existing and pardonable pride to endanger rigid truth, it may be said that along many of the lines of invention and progress which have most intimately affected the life and civilization of the world, the nineteenth century has achieved triumphs and accomplished wonders equal, if not superior, to all other centuries combined.

Therefore, what more fitting time than at its close to pass in pleasing and instructive review the numerous material and intellectual achievements that have so distinguished it, and have contributed in so many and such marvelous ways to the great advance and genuine comfort of the human race! Or, what could prove a greater source of pride and profit than to compare its glorious works with those of the past, the better to understand and measure the actual steps and real extent of the progress of mankind! Or, what more delightful and inspiring than to realize that the sum of those wonderful activities, of which each reader is, or has been, a part, has gone to increase the grandeur of a world era whose rays will penetrate and brighten the coming centuries!

Amid so many and such strong reasons this volume finds excellent cause for its being. Its aims are to mirror a wonderful century from the vantage ground of its closing year; to faithfully trace the lines which mark its almost magical advance; to give it that high and true historic place whence its contrasts with the past can be best noted, and its light upon the future most directly thrown.

This task would be clearly beyond the power of a single mind. So rapid has progress been during some parts of the century, so amazing have been results along the lines of discovery and invention, so various have been the fields of action, that only those of special knowledge and training could be expected to do full justice to the many subjects to be treated.

Hence, the work has been planned so as to give it a value far beyond what could be imparted by a single mind. Each of the themes chosen to type the century’s grand march has been treated by an author of special fitness, and high up in his or her profession or calling, with a view to securing for readers the best thoughts and facts relating to the remarkable events of an hundred years. In this respect the volume is unique and original. Its authorship is not of one mind, but of a corps of minds, whose union assures what the occasion demands.

The scope, character, and value of the volume further appear in its very large number and practical feature of subjects selected to show the active forces, the upward and onward movements, and the grand results that have operated within, and triumphantly crowned, an era without parallel. These subjects embrace the sciences of the century in their numerous divisions and conquests; its arts and literature; industrial, commercial, and financial progress; land and sea prowess; educational, social, moral, and religious growth; in fact, every field of enterprise and achievement within the space of time covered by the work.

A volume of such variety of subject and great extent affords fine opportunity for illustration. The publishers have taken full advantage of this, and have beautified it in a manner which commends itself to every eye and taste. Rarely has a volume been so highly and elegantly embellished. Each subject is illuminated so as to increase the pleasure of reading and make an impression which will prove lasting.

As to its aim and scope, its number of specially qualified authors, its vigor and variety of style and thought, its historic comprehensiveness and exactness, its great wealth of illustration, its superb mechanism, its various other striking features, the volume may readily rank as one of the century’s triumphs, a wonder of industrious preparation, and acceptable to all. At any rate, no such volume has ever mirrored any previous century, and none will come to reflect the nineteenth century with truer line and color.

Not only is the work a rare and costly picture, filled in with inspiring details by master hands, but it is equally a monument, whose solid base, grand proportions, and elegant finish are in keeping with the spirit of the era it marks and the results it honors. Its every inscription is a glowing tribute to human achievement of whatever kind and wherever the field of action may lie, and therefore a happy means of conveying to twentieth century actors the story of a time whose glories they will find it hard to excel. May this picture and monument be viewed, studied, and admired by all, so that the momentous chapters which round the history of a closing century shall avail in shaping the beginnings of a succeeding one.

AUTHORS AND SUBJECTS

JAMES P. BOYD, A. M., L. B., WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY.

REAR-ADMIRAL GEORGE WALLACE MELVILLE, _Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering, Navy Department, Washington, D. C._ THE CENTURY’S NAVAL PROGRESS.

SELDEN J. COFFIN, A. M., _Professor of Astronomy, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa._ ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY.

THOMAS MEEHAN, _Vice-President Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia_. STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER.

MARY ELIZABETH LEASE, _First Woman President of Kansas State Board of Charities_. PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY.

ROBERT P. HAINS, _Principal Examiner of Textiles, United States Patent Office, Washington, D. C._ THE CENTURY’S TEXTILE PROGRESS.

GEORGE EDWARD REED, S. T. D., LL. D., _President of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa._ THE CENTURY’S RELIGIOUS PROGRESS.

JAMES P. BOYD, A. M., L. B., GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES.

WILLIAM MARTIN AIKEN, F. A. I. A., _Former United States Supervising Architect, Treasury Department, Washington, D. C._ PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE.

HARVEY W. WILEY, M. D., PH. D., LL. D., _Chief Chemist of Division of Chemistry, Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C._ THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY.

RITER FITZGERALD, A. M., _Dramatic Critic “City Item,” Philadelphia_. THE CENTURY’S MUSIC AND DRAMA.

JAMES P. BOYD, A. M., L. B., THE CENTURY’S LITERATURE.

MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH. D., _Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania_. THE RECORDS OF THE PAST.

MAJOR HENRY E. ALVORD, C. E., LL. D., _Chief of Dairy Division, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C._ PROGRESS IN DAIRY FARMING.

SARA Y. STEVENSON, Sc. D., _Secretary of Department of Archæology and Paleontology, University of Pennsylvania_. THE CENTURY’S MORAL PROGRESS.

CHARLES McINTIRE, A. M., M. D., _Lecturer on Sanitary Science, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa._ PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ARTHUR L. WAGNER, _Assistant Adjutant General United States Army_. THE CENTURY’S ARMIES AND ARMS.

WALDO F. BROWN, _Agricultural Editor “Cincinnati Gazette.”_ THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE.

WALTER LORING WEBB, C. E., _Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Pennsylvania_. PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

D. E. SALMON, M. D., _Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry, Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C._ THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD.

MAJOR-GENERAL JOSEPH WHEELER, _United States Army, and Member of Congress from Eighth Alabama District_. LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY.

GEORGE J. HAGAR, _Editor of Appendix to Encyclopædia Britannica_. THE CENTURY’S FAIRS AND EXPOSITIONS.

HON. BRADFORD RHODES, _Editor of “Banker’s Magazine.”_ THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING.

H. E. VAN DEMAN, _Late Professor of Botany and Practical Horticulture, Kansas State Agricultural College_. THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE.

EMORY R. JOHNSON, A. M., _Assistant Professor of Transportation and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania_. THE CENTURY’S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS.

FRANKLIN S. EDMONDS, A. M., _Assistant Professor of Political Science, Central High School, Philadelphia_. THE CENTURY’S ADVANCES IN EDUCATION.

THOMAS J. LINDSEY, _Editorial Staff Philadelphia “Evening Bulletin.”_ “THE ART PRESERVATIVE.”

GEORGE A. PACKARD, _Metallurgist and Mining Engineer_. PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING.

JOHN V. SEARS, _Art Critic Philadelphia “Evening Telegraph.”_ ART PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY.

J. MADISON TAYLOR, M. D., AND JOHN H. GIBBON, M. D., _Surgeons Out-Patients Departments of Pennsylvania and Children’s Hospitals_. THE CENTURY’S ADVANCE IN SURGERY.

FRANK C. HAMMOND, M. D., _Instructor in Gynæcology, Jefferson Medical College_. PROGRESS OF MEDICINE.

E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, C. E., _Assistant Editor of “Engineering News,” Chicago, Ill._ EVOLUTION OF THE RAILROAD.

LUTHER E. HEWITT, L. B., _Librarian of Philadelphia Law Association_. ADVANCE IN LAW AND JUSTICE.

MICHAEL J. BROWN, _Secretary of Building Association League of Pennsylvania_. PROGRESS OF BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS.

REV. A. LEFFINGWELL, _Rector Trinity Church, Toledo, O._ EPOCH MAKERS OF THE CENTURY.

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY

I. AT THE DAWN OF THE CENTURY:—Earliest Observations on Electricity —Study of Amber—Earliest Electric Machines—Conduction of Electricity—The Leyden Jar—Franklin’s Discoveries. II. NEW NINETEENTH CENTURY ELECTRICITY:—Galvanism—The Voltaic Pile —Davy’s Arc-light—The Electro-magnet—Faraday’s Discoveries —The Induction Coil—Fields of Force. III. THE TELEGRAPH:— First Successful Telegraphy—The Morse System—Improvements in Telegraphy—Ocean Telegraphy. IV. HELLO! HELLO!—Invention of the Telephone—Principle of the Telephone—Transmitter and Receiver—Uses of the Telephone—The Phonograph, Gramophone, and Graphophone. V. DYNAMO AND MOTOR:—The First Motor—Perfection of the Dynamo—How it generates Electricity—Principle and Uses of the Motor. VI. “AND THERE WAS LIGHT:”—Various Lights of the Past—Era of Electric Lighting—Arc and Incandescent Lamps —Principles of Each—Value of Electric Light. VII. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTION:—Passing of the Horse and Traction Car—Introduction of the Trolley—Features of the Electric Railway—The Storage Battery and Horseless Carriage. VIII. THE X RAY:—Discovery of —What the X Ray is—Photographing by Means of the X Ray. IX. OTHER ELECTRICAL WONDERS:—Electric Clocks—Electrotyping and Electroplating, etc. X. ELECTRICAL LANGUAGE 19–54

THE CENTURY’S NAVAL PROGRESS

I. INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER:—Sea Powers throughout the World— Enumeration of Great Naval Wars. II. THE CENTURY’S GROWTH IN NAVAL STRENGTH:—American Navies at Different Eras—European Fleets —South American and Chinese Navies. III. THE BATTLESHIP PAST AND PRESENT:—The Old Fighting Frigate—Evolution of the Modern Man-of-War—Comparison of Frigate with Ironclad. IV. PROGRESS OF NAVAL ENGINEERING:—Nelson’s Vision—The 14,500 Miles Steaming of the Oregon—Revolution in Mechanism and Material—Types of Great Battleships—Introduction and Advantages of Steam—Invention of the Screw Propeller—Improvement in Boilers and Engines— The Revolving Turret—Cruiser and Torpedo Craft—Phenomenal Speed. V. THE GROWTH OF ORDNANCE:—Description of Various Guns and Projectiles—Power of Modern Explosives. VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR:—Its Necessity in Naval Warfare—How it is made, tested, and put on. VII. THE RAM AND TORPEDO:—Evolution of the Ram— Introduction of the Torpedo—Various Kinds of Torpedoes. VIII. THE UNITED STATES FLEET:—Whence it sprang and how it has grown—Its Ships, Officers, and Men—Official Naval Ranks—The Naval Academy —Passage of the United States to a World Power 55–86

ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY

I. ASTRONOMY A CENTURY AGO:—Discovery of Uranus. II. HOW “BODE’S LAW” PROMOTED RESEARCH:—Further Discovery of Planets—Celestial Photography. III. HOW NEPTUNE WAS FOUND:—Le Verrier, “First Astronomer of the Age.” IV. METEORITES:—Meteoric Showers— Various Large Meteorites. V. DO METEORS OFTEN STRIKE THE EARTH: —The “Fire-ball” of 1860. VI. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES: —Their Equipment and Work—Number of Observatories. VII. IMPROVED INSTRUMENTS:—Their Effect on the Science. VIII. THE SPECTROSCOPE:—Its Triumphs—Elements discovered. IX. WORK IN A LARGE OBSERVATORY:—Discovery of Comets and Nebulæ. X. WASHINGTON NATIONAL OBSERVATORY:—Its Instruments. XI. STAR MAPS AND CATALOGUES:—Number of Stars—The Planisphere. XII. ASTRONOMICAL BOOKS AND WRITERS:—Number of Students of Astronomy. XIII. PRACTICAL USES OF ASTRONOMY:—Its Help in Navigation—Uses in Geodesy. XIV. NOTABLE ASTRONOMICAL EPOCHS:—Clock Regulation —Invention of Chronograph and Spectroscope—Great Telescopes. XV. DISCARDED THEORIES:—Are Planets inhabited—The Orrery. XVI. FUTURE ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS:—How long will the Sun endure? 87–104

STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER

Early History of Botany—The Father of Modern Botany—Botany at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century—Natural System of Classification—Advance in Study of Plant Behavior—Illustrations from the Peanut and Grape-vine—Plant Motions as regards Forms— Origin and Development of Plant Life—The Doctrine of Evolution —Nutrition of Plants—Fertilization of Flowers—Insectivorous and Cruel Plants—Vegetable Physiology—Advance in Relation to Cryptogamic Plants—Geographical Botany—Herbariums and Botanical Gardens 105–114

PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY

Woman’s Misconception of her Rights—Former Oppression—Cosmic and Moral Processes—What Christianity has done for Women—Hardship of the Pauline Grip—The True Mission of Woman—Improvement in her Education—Female Occupations—Competition with Men—Woman in the Literary Field—In Philanthropy and Morals—Women’s Clubs —Woman in Politics—The constantly Broadening Field of Woman’s Influence 115–124

THE CENTURY’S TEXTILE PROGRESS

Antiquity of Textile Industry—The Distaff, Spindle, and Loom among Chinese, Egyptians, and Greeks—Introduction of the Spinning-wheel —Loom of the Eighteenth Century—The Fly-shuttle—Textiles at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century—Invention of the Spinning Jenny—Arkwright’s Drawing-rollers—Whitney’s Cotton-gin—Its Influence—Invention of the Spinning-mule—The Spinning-frame —Rapid Improvements in Spinning Machinery—Evolution of the Spindle—Increase of Speed—Introduction of the Carding-machine —Carding-combs—Advent of Power-looms—Description of their Machinery and Products—The Jacquard Loom—Of Pile Fabrics—The Bigelow Loom—How Tufted Pile Fabrics are made—Weaving of Fancy Cloths—Various Forms of Looms—Hair-cloth Looms—Weaving of Tubular Fabrics—Infinitude of Uses to which the Loom can be put— The Coming Automatic Loom—Advent of the Knitting-machine—Its Wonderful Perfection and Products—The Century’s Patents of Textile Machinery—Beauty of Textile Art—Its Influence on Taste and Comfort 125–146

THE CENTURY’S RELIGIOUS PROGRESS

Religious Status in Eighteenth Century, in England, France, and on the Continent—Condition in the United States—The Reign of Skepticism—Doctrinal Divisions in the Churches—The Nineteenth Century Revival—Variety and Growth of Religions in the United States—Freedom of the Church—Kinship of Denominations— Increase in Material and Spiritual Forces—Church Edifices and Capacities—Religious Population—Number of Communicants —Distribution of Communicants—Ministers and Organizations —Missionary Enterprises—Service of Religion in Education, Philanthropy, and Reform—Gifts to Educational Institutions —Growth of Charitable Institutions—Religion and Republican Institutions 147–158

GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES

Antiquity of Libraries—Evidences of Civilized Progress—Character of Ancient Writings—Books of Clay—Mesopotamian Literature —Egyptian Hieroglyphics—Papyrus Manuscripts—Sacred Books of Thoth—Greek Libraries—Their Number and Extent—Roman Libraries—Imperial Library of Constantinople—Effects of Christianity upon Literature—Church Book-making and Collecting— All Books written or copied by Priests—Fate of Monastic Libraries —Early Libraries in France—Royal Libraries in Europe—The French National Library—Introduction of Copyright—Growth and Extent of European Libraries—Their Location and Management—The British Museum—Libraries of Great Britain—Canadian Libraries —English Colonial Libraries—Libraries of the Latin Republics —Phenomenal Growth of Libraries in the United States—Wide Ramification of the System—The Oldest United States Library— Colonial Libraries—Libraries of 1800—Number founded during the Century—State Libraries—School-district Libraries—Library Systems—The Library of Congress—Its Vast Extent and New Repository—Copyright System—United States Free Libraries— Noted Libraries of the Country—Libraries of over 100,000 Volumes —Munificence of Library Founders—Noted Givers to Libraries— Progress in Library Management 159–170

PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE

English Architecture at the Beginning of the Century—The Queen Anne Style—French Architecture and Architects—Architectural Styles in Germany, Austria, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and throughout Europe—Canadian Styles and Notable Buildings—Early Architecture in the United States—Old New England and Southern Homes—The Colonial Styles—The White House and United States Capitol— Progress in Public Building Architecture—Notable Changes after the War of 1812—The Gothic Cottage and Italian Villa—The First School of Architecture—Comparison of Styles in Different Cities—Introduction of Iron—Styles for Hotels and Summer Resorts—Effect of Chicago and Boston Fires on Architecture— How the Centennial Exposition changed Styles—Church and Library Architecture—The Congressional Library and Other Notable Specimens of American Architecture—Advent of the Sky-scraper—General Review of Architectural Effects—Monumental Works the Poetry of Architecture 171–190

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY

Status of Chemical Science at Beginning of the Century—The Century’s Main Lines of Progress: I. INORGANIC AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY:— Lavoisier’s Cardinal Propositions—Rapid Advance of Chemical Science—Sir Humphrey Davy’s Achievements—Elementary Bodies of Eighteenth Century—Same in Nineteenth Century. II. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY:—Properties of Elements—Of Matter and Energy—Rates of Reaction—Conditions of Equilibrium. III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: —Of Carbon Compounds—Theory of Substitution—Atoms in the Molecule—Space Relations—The Carbon Atom—The Organic Body. IV. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY:—Development of the Blow-pipe— Gas Analysis—Electricity as a Factor—Discovery of Spectrum Analysis. V. SYNTHETICAL CHEMISTRY:—Building up of Complex Forms —Synthesis of Coloring Matters and Sugars—Future Food of Man. VI. METALLURGICAL CHEMISTRY:—Oldest Branch of Chemical Science —Reduction of Ores—Advantage to Agriculture. VII. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY:—Utilization of Fertilizers—Nitrogen as a Plant Food —Advantages to Practical Agriculture. VIII. GRAPHIC CHEMISTRY: —Fundamental Principles—Daguerreotype and Photograph. IX. DIDACTIC CHEMISTRY:—The Student and the Laboratory—Advantages of Laboratory Training. X. CHEMISTRY OF FERMENTATION:—Bacterial Action—Process of Digestion—Decay of Meats and Vegetables— Sterilization—Fermentation. XI. ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY:—Combination of Carbon with Metals—Uses of Electricity in Chemistry. CONCLUSION. 191–206

THE CENTURY’S MUSIC AND DRAMA

I. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY MUSIC:—Leading Composers—Nineteenth Century Music—The Great Composers and their Works—Different Schools and Styles of Composition—Analysis of Operas—Musical Characteristics of the Nations—Verdi and Wagner compared— The American Opera. II. THE DRAMA:—The Theatre of the Past— Great Modern Improvement—Scenery and Appointments—Actors and Actresses—The Century’s Illustrious Role—Theatres in the United States—Character of Actors—Public Estimation of the Drama 207–214

THE CENTURY’S LITERATURE

Contrast with Eighteenth Century Literature—Tone of Modern Literature—How it types Progress—English Literature— Literature of Other Nations—Various Authors—English Criticism of American Literature—Newspaper Literature—Evolution of the Newspaper—Newspapers of the Nations—Nineteenth Century Journalism—Beginning of Newspaper Enterprise in the United States —Colonial Papers—Papers of the Revolution—Appearance of the Daily—The Penny Press—Newspaper Growth up to 1861—War Journalism—The Sunday Newspaper—Illustrated Journalism— Reaction in Newspaper Prices—Cost of running a Newspaper—Number of World’s Newspapers—The Comic Paper—Evolution of the Magazine —Growth of Magazine in the United States—Character of Magazine Literature—Advent of the Cheap Magazine—Features of Publication 215–230

THE RECORDS OF THE PAST

Extension of Knowledge into the Past—Spade of the Archæologist— General View of the Revelations—Documents of Stone, Clay, and Papyrus—Assyrian Revelations—Egyptian Explorations—Eloquence of Obelisk, Tomb, and Pyramid—Cuneiform Scripts of Babylon— Discovery of the Rosetta Stone—Champollion’s Key—Story of the Ruins in Greece and Rome—Revelation of Temples and Statues —Phœnician Remains—The Moabite Stone—Ruins in Palestine— Revelations in Jerusalem—Hittite Remains—Continuing Interest in Archæological Discovery—Vast Importance from an Historic Point of View 231–244

PROGRESS IN DAIRY FARMING

Requisites for Successful Dairying—Enterprise of Dairying Districts —Advantages of Dairying—Dairying Areas—Dairying at the Beginning of the Century—Early Methods—The Great Change midway of the Century—Improvement in Milch Cows—Growth of Cheese-Making—Institution of Creameries—Application of Mechanics to Dairying—Dairy Associations—Best Dairy Breeds— Invention of the Separator—Its Operation and Advantages—The Fat-test for Milk—Growth in Butter-making Illustrated—Labor in Dairying—Dairy and Food Commissions—Dairying Publications —City Milk Supplies—Annual Production of Cheese—Character of Cheeses—Annual Butter Product—Butter and Cheese-producing States—Number and Value of Cows—Dairy Values as compared with Value of Other Products—Necessity for guarding Dairy Interests. 245–260

THE CENTURY’S MORAL PROGRESS

Morals among the Ancients—Moral Precepts common to all Communities —Evolution of Ethics—Early Christian Morals—Spirit of the Reformation—Low Moral Condition of the Eighteenth Century—Birth of a New Moral Epoch—A National Conscience—Abolition of Slavery —Larger Application of the Principles of Right and Justice—How Women are affected—Effect of Invention and Education on Social and Moral Conditions—Broadening of Woman’s Sphere—Increase of Self-respect—Influence of Women on Moral Status—Legislation and Morals—How to meet Ethical Problems—Business Success and the Moral State—Rights and Duties of Capital and Labor—Cruelties of War and Blessings of Peace—The Century’s Moral Gain—Changed Treatment of Vice and Poverty—The Principle of Well-doing— Growth of Tolerance and Altruism—A Higher Individual and Public Conscience 261–270

PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE

Hygienic Code of Moses—Hippocrates and Disease—Sanitation and Sanitary Science—Foundation Rules—Spirit of Scientific Investigation—Effect of Act of Parliament of 1837—Value of Official Figures—The Riddle of Samson—Health Reports in United States—Duty of Separate States—Mortality in London of Filth Diseases—Progress of Sanitation—Diminution of Scourges —Effect of Sanitation upon the Weak and Helpless—Value of Culture Tubes—Discovery of Disease Causes—Of Trichinæ in Pork —Communicable Diseases caused by Living Organisms—Infectious and Contagious Diseases—Uses of Biology in Sanitary Science— Purification of Waters—Of Consumption and Cholera—Effects of Filtration—What Bacteria are—Of Isolation and Disinfection— Modern Quarantines—Fumigation of Ships—Lowering of Death Rates —Influence of the Sanitarium—Improved Construction of Dwellings —Care for Paving and Sewage—Disposal of Refuse—Of Food Inspection—State Boards of Health—Care of Employees—Of Play and Athletic Grounds—Public Breathing Spaces—Duty of Caring for Personal Health—Bearing of Public Health on Community and Nation 271–282

THE CENTURY’S ARMIES AND ARMS

Armies and Arms of the Eighteenth Century—Alteration in War Methods —European Army Systems—Changes made by Napoleon—Battle Weapons and Tactical Movements—Growing Use of Cannon—The Congreve Rocket—Infantry Formations—The Introduction of the Rifle—The Crimean War and Rifled Siege Guns—The Italian War and Rifled Cannon—Advent of the Breech-loader—Introduction of Heavy Guns—Arms and Tactics in the Civil War—Use of Steam and Electricity in War—Advantage of Railroad and Telegraph— Introduction of Armored Vessels—Siege Artillery—Advent of the Machine Gun—New System of Entrenchment—German Military System —Coming of the Needle Gun—French Military System—Comparison of Russian and Turkish Methods—Strength of the World’s Armies— United States Army Organization—Steel Guns and Smokeless Powder —Improvement in Mortars—The Dynamite Gun—Modern Shrapnel— Sea-Coast Guns—Perfection of Modern Rifles—Their Great Range and Power—The Gatling Gun—The Maxim Automatic—Introduction of the Torpedo—General Review of the Increase in Military Efficiency 283–306

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE

I. VICISSITUDES OF EARLY FARMING:—First National Road—Canal Building—Coming of Railroads—Farming Conditions before the 50’s—Hardships of Marketing. II. IMPROVEMENTS IN FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY:—Farmers’ Draft upon Nature—The Sickle, Flail, and Cradle—Coming of Harvesters—Improvement in Threshers —Portable and Traction Engines—Separators and Stackers— Improvements in Other Implements. III. IMPROVEMENT IN STOCK:— Various Breeds of Cattle—Breeding of Horses, Sheep, and Swine —Best Breeds. IV. IMPROVEMENT IN FARMING METHODS:—In Drainage —Care of Animals—Barns and Stabling—Proper Food Rations —Fencing. V. HOME IMPROVEMENTS:—Home Architecture—The Yard and Garden—Maintaining Soil Fertility—Proper Manures —Soil Analysis—Use of Modern Fertilizers. VI. IMPROVEMENT IN AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE:—Agricultural Literature—Farmers’ Clubs and Institutes—Granges—Agricultural Colleges—Experimental Stations—The Department of Agriculture—Bureau of Animal Industry—Agricultural Newspapers and Periodicals—Summary of Agricultural Progress 307–338

PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

I. AN INTRODUCTORY VIEW:—Antiquity of Engineering—Ancient Roads and Bridges—Nineteenth Century Advances. II. BRIDGES:—Primitive Bridges—Iron and Steel Bridges—The Brooklyn Bridge—Niagara Suspension Bridge—Pecos River Viaduct—The Forth Bridge— Remarkable Arches—Stone Bridges. III. CAISSONS:—Invention of the Caisson—Its Principle and Use—Caisson Adventures. IV. CANALS:—The First Suez Canal—Nicaragua and Panama Canals —Modern Suez Canal—The Manchester Canal—Chicago Drainage Canal—What it is for. V. GEODESY:—Ancient Methods of Earth Measurements—The Century’s Advance in Methods of Measurement. VI. RAILROADS:—Their Invention and Development—Immense Value. VII. TUNNELS:—Ancient Origin of—Tunnels of Egypt, Babylonia, and India—Roman Tunnels—Of the Modern Tunnel—Advance in Machinery and Constructive Processes—Mount Cenis Tunnel—Tunnel Surveying and Excavating—The Hoosac Tunnel—St. Gothard Tunnel —St. Clair Tunnel—Its Construction and Commercial Effects 339–360

THE CENTURY’S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD

I. OF ANIMAL DISEASES:—Effect of Napoleonic Wars—Various Animal Diseases—How controlled. II. INCREASE IN NUMBER OF ANIMALS:—Showing in Europe, United States, and Other Countries. III. IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS:—Shortening the Time of Growth— Development of Dairy and Beef Breeds—Improvement in Wool Growing —Poultry Breeds—Thoroughbred Horses—The American Trotter— Animal Exports—Foreign Animal Imports—Displacement of Horses by Mechanical Motors—Prices of Animal Products—American Command of World’s Animal Markets 361–374

LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY