Part 1

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE FINLAND: "... but does not reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns southwards." 'Arctic' amended from 'Artic'.

ARTICLE FISCHART, JOHANN: "Sie haben Nasen und riechen's nit." 'und' amended from 'vnd'.

ARTICLE FISHER, JOHN: "The constancy of Fisher, while driving Henry to a fury that knew no bounds, won the admiration of the whole Christian world, where he had been long known as one of the most learned and pious bishops of the time." 'Christian' amended from 'Christain'.

ARTICLE FISHKILL LANDING: "... in which the New York Provincial Congress met in August and September 1776." 'Provincial' amended from 'Provinical'.

ARTICLE FITZGERALD, EDWARD: "... until 1873 in the town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house hard by, called Little Grange." 'called' amended from 'ealled'.

ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "He profited largely by the tyranny of Rufus, farming for the king a large proportion of the ecclesiastical preferments which were illegally kept vacant, and obtaining for himself the wealthy see of Durham (1099)." 'illegally' amended from 'illegaly'.

ARTICLE FLAMBARD, RANULF: "A bishop, however, was an inconvenient prisoner, and Flambard soon succeeded in effecting his escape from the Tower of London." 'succeeded' amended from 'succeded'.

ARTICLE FLAME: "... if the outer tube be slid up again, it detaches the outer cone and carries it upward." 'be' amended from 'he'.

ARTICLE FLAME: "It is least ambiguous when used in reference to flames where the combining gases are mixed in theoretical proportions before issuing from the burner." 'is' amended from 'it'.

ARTICLE FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE: "During the seventeen years of his orderly government the country found time to recuperate its forces after the exhaustion caused by the extravagances of Louis XIV. and of the regent, and the general prosperity rapidly increased." 'rapidly' amended from 'rapidy'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME X, SLICE IV

Finland to Fleury, Andre

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

FINLAND FITZWILLIAM, WILLIAM FITZWILLIAM FINLAY, GEORGE FIUME FINN MAC COOL FIVES FINNO-UGRIAN FIX, THEODORE FINSBURY FIXTURES FINSTERWALDE FIZEAU, ARMAND HIPPOLYTE LOUIS FIORENZO DI LORENZO FJORD FIORENZUOLA D'ARDA FLACCUS FIORILLO, JOHANN DOMINICUS FLACH, GEOFROI JACQUES FIR FLACIUS, MATTHIAS FIRDOUSI FLACOURT, ETIENNE DE FIRE FLAG FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION FLAGELLANTS FIREBACK FLAGELLATA FIRE BRAT FLAGEOLET FIREBRICK FLAGSHIP FIREFLY FLAHAUT DE LA BILLARDERIE, JOSEPH FIRE-IRONS FLAIL FIRENZUOLA, AGNOLO FLAMBARD, RANULF FIRESHIP FLAMBOROUGH HEAD FIRE-WALKING FLAMBOYANT STYLE FIREWORKS FLAME FIRM FLAMEL, NICOLAS FIRMAMENT FLAMEN FIRMAN FLAMINGO FIRMICUS, MATERNUS JULIUS FLAMINIA, VIA FIRMINY FLAMININUS, TITUS QUINCTIUS FIRST-FOOT FLAMINIUS, GAIUS FIRST OF JUNE FLAMSTEED, JOHN FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING FLANDERS FIRTH, MARK FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE FIRUZABAD FLANNEL FIRUZKUH FLANNELETTE FISCHART, JOHANN FLASK FISCHER, EMIL FLAT FISCHER, ERNST BERTHOLD FLATBUSH FISH, HAMILTON FLAT-FISH FISH FLATHEADS FISHER, ALVAN FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE FISHER, GEORGE PARK FLAVEL, JOHN FISHER, JOHN FLAVIAN I. FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER FLAVIAN II. FISHERIES FLAVIAN FISHERY FLAVIGNY FISHGUARD FLAVIN FISHKILL LANDING FLAX FISK, JAMES FLAXMAN, JOHN FISK, WILBUR FLEA FISKE, JOHN FLECHE FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN FLECHIER, ESPRIT FISTULA FLECKEISEN, CARL WILHELM ALFRED FIT FLECKNOE, RICHARD FITCH, JOHN FLEET FITCH, SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FLEET PRISON FITCH, RALPH FLEETWOOD, CHARLES FITCHBURG FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM FITTIG, RUDOLF FLEETWOOD FITTON, MARY FLEGEL, EDWARD ROBERT FITTON, WILLIAM HENRY FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT FITZBALL, EDWARD FLEMING, PAUL FITZGERALD FLEMING, RICHARD FITZGERALD, EDWARD FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD FITZGERALD, LORD EDWARD FLEMING, SIR THOMAS FITZGERALD, RAYMOND FLEMISH LITERATURE FITZGERALD, LORD THOMAS FLENSBURG FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY FLERS FITZHERBERT, THOMAS FLETA FITZ NEAL, RICHARD FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM FITZ-OSBERN, ROGER FLETCHER, ANDREW FITZ-OSBERN, WILLIAM FLETCHER, GILES (English author) FITZ OSBERT, WILLIAM FLETCHER, GILES (English poet) FITZ PETER, GEOFFREY FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM FITZROY, ROBERT FLETCHER, PHINEAS FITZROY FLEURANGES, ROBERT (III.) DE LA MARCK FITZ STEPHEN, ROBERT FLEUR-DE-LIS FITZ STEPHEN, WILLIAM FLEURUS FITZ THEDMAR, ARNOLD FLEURY FITZWALTER, ROBERT FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE FITZWILLIAM, SIR WILLIAM

FINLAND (Finnish, _Suomi_ or _Suomenmaa_), a grand-duchy governed subject to its own constitution by the emperor of Russia as grand-duke of Finland. It is situated between the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, and includes, moreover, a large territory in Lapland. It touches at its south-eastern extremity the government of St Petersburg, includes the northern half of Lake Ladoga, and is separated from the Russian governments of Arkhangelsk and Olonets by a sinuous line which follows, roughly speaking, the water-parting between the rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea and the White Sea. In the north of the Gulf of Bothnia it is separated from Sweden and Norway by a broken line which takes the course of the valley of the Tornea river up to its sources, thus falling only 21 m. short of reaching the head of Norwegian Lyngen-fjord; then it runs south-east and north-east down the Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not reach the Arctic Ocean, and 13 m. from the Varanger-fjord it turns southwards. Finland includes in the south-west the Aland archipelago--its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the Swedish coast--as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, Hogland, Tytars, &c. Its utmost limits are: 59 deg. 48'--70 deg. 6' N., and 19 deg. 2'--32 deg. 50' E. The area of Finland, in square miles, is as follows (_Altas de Finlande, 1899_):--

+----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ | Government. |Continent.| Islands | Islands | Lakes.| Total. | | | |in Lakes.| in Seas.| | | +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ | Nyland | 4,062 | 24 | 210 | 286 | 4,582 | | Abo-Bjorneborg | 7,594 | 8 | 1331 | 400 | 9,333 | | Tavastehus | 6,837 | 97 | .. | 1,400 | 8,334 | | Viborg | 11,630 | 362 | 130 | 4,502 | 16,624 | | St Michel | 5,652 | 1018 | .. | 2,149 | 8,819 | | Kuopio | 13,160 | 643 | .. | 2,696 | 16,499 | | Vasa | 14,527 | 62 | 203 | 1,313 | 16,105 | | Uleaborg | 60,348 | 171 | 94 | 3,344 | 63,957 | +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ | Total | 123,810 | 2385 | 1968 |16,090 |144,253 | +----------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+

_Orography._--A line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia to the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct parts, the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging to the Kjolen mountains, to the plateau of the Kola peninsula, and to the slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper from the White Sea. At the head-waters of the Tornea, Finland penetrates as a narrow strip into the heart of the highlands of Kjolen (the Keel), where the Haldefjall (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by other _fjalls_, or flat-topped summits, of from 3300 to 3750 ft. of altitude. Extensive plateaus (1500-1750 ft.), into which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of its tributaries are deeply sunk, and which take the character of a mountain region in the Saariselka (highest summit, 2360 ft.), occupy the remainder of Lapland. Along the eastern border the dreary plateaus of Olonets reach on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 to 1000 ft. Quite different is the character of the pentagonal space comprised between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the above-mentioned line traced through the lakes Ulea and Piellis. The meridional ridges which formerly used to be traced here along the main water-partings do not exist in reality, and the country appears on the hypsometrical map in the _Atlas de Finlande_ as a plateau of 350 ft. of average altitude, covered with countless lakes, lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 ft. The three main lake-basins of Nasi-jarvi, Pajane and Saima are separated by low and flat hills only; but one sees distinctly appearing on the map a line of flat elevations running south-west to north-east along the north-west border of the lake regions from Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching from 650 to 825 ft. of altitude. A regular gentle slope leads from these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia (Osterbotten), forming vast prairie tracts in its lower parts.

A notable feature of Finland are the _asar_ or narrow ridges of morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces. Some of them are relics of the longitudinal moraines of the ice-sheet, and they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo as, which runs from Hangoudd to Vesi-jarvi, and is continued farther east under the name of Salpausellia, parallel to the shore of the Gulf of Finland, are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a period when the ice-sheet remained for some time stationary during its retreat. As a rule these forest-clothed _asar_ rise from 30 to 60 and occasionally 120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding to the already great picturesqueness of the lake region; railways are traced in preference along them.

_Lakes and Rivers._--A labyrinth of lakes, covering 11% of the aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams (_fjarden_), covers the surface of South Finland, offering great facilities for internal navigation, while the connecting streams supply an enormous amount of motive-power. The chief lakes are: Lake Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima (three and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the Vuoksen, flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, while the lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced canal with the Gulf of Finland; the basins of Pyha-selka, Ori-vesi and Piellis-jarvi; Pajane, surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of which are discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river; Nasi-jarvi and Pyha-jarvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-elf, flowing into the Gulf of Bothnia; Ulea-trask, discharged by the Ulea into the same gulf; and Enare, belonging to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. Two large rivers, Kemi and Tornea, enter the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, while the Ulea is now navigable throughout, owing to improvements in its channel.

_Geology._--Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga, and also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably Devonian), and in the Kjolen. Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic age are met with in the Kola peninsula (nepheline-syenites) and at Kuusamo (syenite). The remainder of Finland is built up of the oldest known crystalline rocks belonging to the Archaeozoic or Algonkian period. The most ancient of these seem to be the granites of East Finland. The denudation and destruction of the granites gave rise to the _Ladoga schists_ and various deposits of the same period, which were subsequently strongly folded. Then the country came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes then situated in West Finland, formed the so-called _Bothnian series_. New masses of granites protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian deposits underwent foldings in their turn, while denudation was again at work on a grand scale. A new series of _Jatulian deposits_ was formed and a new system of foldings followed; but these were the last in this part of the globe. The _Jotnian series_, which were formed next, remain still undisturbed. It is to this series that the well-known Rapakivi granite of Aland, Nystad and Viborg belongs. No marine deposits younger than those just mentioned--all belonging to a pre-Cambrian epoch--are found in the central portion of Finland; and the greater part of the country has probably been dry land since Palaeozoic times. The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial deposits. The former of these, representing the bottom-moraine of the ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial clays (partly of lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in the peripheral coast-region--or in separate areas in the interior depressions. Some Finnish geologists--Sederholm for one--consider it probable that during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (_Yoldia_ sea) covered all southern Finland and also Scania (Skane) in Sweden, thus connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White Sea by a broad channel; but no fossils from that sea have been found anywhere in Finland. Conclusive proofs, however, of a later submergence under a post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells now living in the Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of Finland, and up to 260, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten. Traces of a large inner post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake Agassiz of North America, have been discovered. The country is still continuing to rise, but at an unequal rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a century in the Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken), from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly zero in the Baltic provinces.

_Climate._--Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west winds the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in corresponding latitudes. The country lies thus between the annual isotherms of 41 deg. and 28 deg. Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E. direction. In January the average monthly temperature varies from 9 deg. Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30 deg. along the south coast; while in July the difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees, being 53 deg. in the north and 61 deg. in the south-east. Everywhere, and especially in the interior, the winter lasts very long, and early frosts (June 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops. The amount of rain and snow is from 25-1/2 in. along the south coast to 13.8 in. in the interior of southern Finland.

_Flora_, _Forests_, _Fauna_.--The flora of Finland has been most minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists were enabled to divide the country into twenty-eight different provinces, giving the numbers of phanerogam species for each province. These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, from 508 to 651 in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; while the total for all Finland attains 1132 species. Alpine plants are not met with in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 to 64 species in the Kola peninsula. The chief forest trees of Finland are the Scotch fir (_Pinus sylvestris_, L.), the fir (_Picea excelsa_, Link.); two species of birch (_B. verrucosa_, Ehrh., and _B. odorata_, Bechst.), as well as the birch-bush (_B. nana_); two species of _Alnus_ (_glutinosa_ and _incana_); the oak (_Q. pedunculata_, Ehrh.), which grows only on the south coast; the poplar (_Populus tremula_); and the Siberian larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century. Over 6,000,000 trees are cut every year to be floated to thirty large saw-mills, and about 1,000,000 to be transformed into paper pulp. The total export of timber was valued in 1897 at 82,160,000 marks. It is estimated, however, that the domestic use of wood (especially for fuel) represents nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used for export in different shapes. The total area under forests is estimated at 63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the state. The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the necessary bibliographical indications in _Travaux geographiques en Finlande_, published for the London Geographical Congress of 1895.

_Population._--The population of Finland, which was 429,912 in 1751, 832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, was 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were women and 1,342,082 men. Of these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the country districts. The distribution of population in various provinces was as follows:--

+-----------------+------------+--------------+ | 1904. | Population.| Density per | | | |sq. kilometre.| +-----------------+------------+--------------+ | Abo-Bjorneborg | 447,098 | 20.3 | | Kuopio | 313,951 | 8.9 | | Nyland | 297,813 | 29.3 | | St Michel | 189,360 | 11.1 | | Tavastehus | 301,272 | 17.7 | | Uleaborg | 280,899 | 1.9 | | Viborg | 421,610 | 14.6 | | Vasa | 460,460 | 12.5 | +-----------------+------------+--------------+ | Total | 2,712,562 | 8.6 | +-----------------+------------+--------------+

The number of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, showing an excess of births over deaths of 40,026. Emigration was estimated at about three thousand every year before 1898, but it largely increased then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish autonomy. In 1899 the emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in 1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952 in 1904.

The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and Swedes (349,733). Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the provinces of Viborg and Nyland. Both Finns and Swedes belong to the Lutheran faith, there being only 46,466 members of the Greek Orthodox Church and 755 Roman Catholics.

The leading cities of Finland are: Helsingfors, capital of the grand-duchy and of the province (_lan_) of Nyland, principal seaport (111,654 inhabitants); Abo, capital of the Abo-Bjorneborg province and ancient capital of Finland (42,639); Tammerfors, the leading manufacturing town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief town of province of same name, important seaport (34,672); Uleaborg, capital of province (17,737); Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of Vasa lan (18,028); Bjorneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province (13,519); and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same name (5545).

_Industries._--Agriculture gives occupation to the large majority of the population, but of late the increase of manufactures has been marked. Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the foreign exports of butter rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905. Measures have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, and the state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors for that purpose. There are two high schools, one experimental station, twenty-two middle schools and forty-eight lower schools of agriculture, besides ten horticultural schools. Agricultural societies exist in each province.

Fishing is an important item of income. The value of exports of fish, &c., was L140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the value of L61,300. The manufacturing industries (wood-products, metallurgy, machinery, textiles, paper and leather) are of modern development, but the aggregate production approaches one and a half millions sterling in value.

Some gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output, which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to 1951 grammes. There is also a small output of silver, copper and iron. The last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the lakes. In 1904 22,050 tons of cast iron were obtained. The textile industries are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding the high duties, is exported to Russia. The fabrication of paper out of wood is also rapidly growing. As to the timber trade, there are upwards of 500 saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with an output valued at over L3,000,000 annually.

_Communications._--The roads, attaining an aggregate length of 27,500 m., are kept as a rule in very good order. The first railway was opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, in 1870 (cost only L4520 per mile). Railways of a lighter type began to be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 2100 m. of railway, mostly belonging to the state. The gross income from the state railways is 26,607,622, and the net income 4,684,856 marks. Finland has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which the sluiced canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland is the chief one. It permits ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate 270 m. inland, and is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 vessels. Considerable works have also been made to connect the different lakes and lake-basins for inland navigation, a sum of L1,000,000 having been spent for that purpose.

The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia. Telephones have an enormous extension both in the towns and between the different towns of southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription varies from 40 to 60 marks,[1] and is only 10 marks in the smaller towns.

_Commerce._--The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and reached in 1904 the following values:--

+---------+------------+----------------+-------------+ | | From or to | From or to | Totals. | | | Russia. |other Countries.| | +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+ | Imports | L4,036,000 | L6,488,000 | L10,524,000 | | Exports | 2,332,000 | 6,292,000 | 8,624,000 | +---------+------------+----------------+-------------+

The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, France and Sweden. The main imports are: cereals and flour (to an annual value exceeding L3,000,000), metals, machinery, textile materials and textile products. The chief articles of export are: timber and wood articles (L5,250,000), paper and paper pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c. The chief ports are Helsingfors, Abo, Viborg, Hango and Vasa.

_Education._--Great strides have been made since 1866, when a new education law was passed. Rudimentary teaching in reading, occasionally writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are given in the maternal house, or in "maternal schools," or by ambulatory schools under the control of the clergy, who make the necessary examination in the houses of every parish. All education above that level is in the hands of the educational department and school boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being bound (since 1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts and to have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these expenses 800 marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each female teacher, or 25% of the total cost in urban communes. Secondary education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, classical and scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence to scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums or gymnasia. For higher education there is the university of Helsingfors (formerly the Abo Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 students (328 women) and 141 professors and docents. Besides the Helsingfors polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower technical, commercial and navigation schools. Finland has several scientific societies enjoying a world-wide reputation, as the Finnish Scientific Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, several medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian Society, the Historical and Archaeological Societies, one juridical, one technical and two geographical societies. All of these, as also the Finnish Geological Survey, the Forestry Administration, &c., issue publications well known to the scientific world. The numerous local branches of the Friends of the Folk-School and the Society for Popular Education display great activity, the former by aiding the smaller communes in establishing schools, and the latter in publishing popular works, starting their own schools as well as free libraries (in nearly every commune), and organizing lectures for the people. The university students take a lively part in this work.