Part 1

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters, [oo] for infinity symbol and [dP] for partial differential symbol.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE HALLER, ALBRECHT VON: "From a literary point of view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his poem entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March 1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte." 'poem' amended from 'peom'.

ARTICLE HAMBURG: "... and if the progress of the tide up the river gives indication of danger, another three shots follow." 'another' amended from 'other'.

ARTICLE HARBOUR: "Ostend is the only jetty harbour in which a large sluicing basin has been recently constructed, but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its vicinity; ..." 'harbour' amended from 'habour'.

ARTICLE HARMONICA: "... Franz Leppich's panmelodicon in 1810, Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these nothing now remains but the name and a description in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung ..." Added 'in'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XII, SLICE VIII

Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON HANDICAP HALLER, BERTHOLD HANDSEL HALLEY, EDMUND HANDSWORTH HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS HANDWRITING HALLIDAY, ANDREW HANG-CHOW-FU HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, ORCHARD HANGING HALLOWE'EN HANGO HALLSTATT HANKA, WENCESLAUS HALLUCINATION HANLEY HALLUIN HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO HALM, CARL FELIX HANNAY, JAMES HALMA HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN HALMAHERA HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman) HALMSTAD HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.) HALO HANNINGTON, JAMES HALOGENS HANNINGTON HALS, FRANS HANNO HALSBURY, HARDINGE GIFFARD HANOI HALSTEAD HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL HALT HANOVER (province of Prussia) HALUNTIUM HANOVER (city of Prussia) HALYBURTON, JAMES HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.) HALYBURTON, THOMAS HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) HAM (son of Noah) HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) HAM (town of France) HANRIOT, FRANCOIS HAMADAN HANSARD, LUKE HAMADHANI HANSEATIC LEAGUE HAMAH HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG HANSI HAMAR HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS HAMASA HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES HAMBURG (German state) HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER HAMBURG (German seaport) HANTHAWADDY HAMDANI HANUKKAH HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE HANUMAN HAMELN HANWAY, JONAS HAMERLING, ROBERT HANWELL HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT HAPARANDA HAMI HAPLODRILI HAMILCAR BARCA HAPTARA HAMILTON HAPUR HAMILTON, MARQUESSES & DUKES OF HARA-KIRI HAMILTON, ALEXANDER HARALD HAMILTON, ANTHONY HARBIN HAMILTON, ELIZABETH HARBINGER HAMILTON, EMMA HARBOUR HAMILTON, JAMES HARBURG HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON HARCOURT HAMILTON, JOHN HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT HAMILTON, PATRICK HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VENABLES VERNON HAMILTON, ROBERT HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON HAMILTON, THOMAS HARDANGER FJORD HAMILTON, WILLIAM HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803) HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856) HARDERWYK HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD HARDICANUTE HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN HARDING, CHESTER HAMILTON (town of Australia) HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD HAMILTON (river of Canada) HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE HAMILTON (city of Canada) HARDOI HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland) HARDOUIN, JEAN HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.) HARDT, HERMANN VON DER HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) HARDT, THE HAMIRPUR HARDWAR HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE HAMLET HARDY, ALEXANDRE HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE HARDY, THOMAS HAMLIN, HANNIBAL HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS HAMM HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA HARDYNG, JOHN HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT HAMMER HARE, SIR JOHN HAMMERBEAM ROOF HARE, JULIUS CHARLES HAMMERFEST HARE HAMMER-KOP HAREBELL HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH HAREM HAMMERSMITH HARFLEUR HAMMER-THROWING HARIANA HAMMER-TOE HARINGTON, SIR JOHN HAMMOCK HARIRI HAMMOND, HENRY HARI-RUD HAMMOND HARISCHANDRA HAMON, JEAN LOUIS HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE BRAND HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON HAMPDEN, JOHN HARKNESS, ALBERT HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON HARKNESS, ROBERT HAMPDEN-SIDNEY HARLAN, JAMES HAMPSHIRE HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL HAMPSTEAD HARLAND, HENRY HAMPTON, WADE HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE HAMPTON (Middlesex, England) HARLECH HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) HARLEQUIN HAMPTON ROADS HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH HAMSTER HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON HANAPER HARLINGEN HANAU HARMATTAN HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HARMODIUS HANCOCK, JOHN HARMONIA HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT HARMONIC HANCOCK HARMONICA HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF HARMONIC ANALYSIS HAND HARMONICHORD HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK HARMONIUM HANDFASTING

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708. Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish sports, he had the more opportunity for the development of his precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and expound the Bible to his father's servants; before he was ten he had sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, compiled a collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was already the author of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well as of original lyrics, dramas, and an epic of four thousand lines on the origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one occasion to have rescued from a fire at the risk of his life, only, however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's attention had been directed to the profession of medicine while he was residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in 1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of Tubingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725 exchanged Tubingen for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where Albinus had already begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove that the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle, Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslow; and in 1728 he proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the study of the higher mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the course of a tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss cantons, he began a collection of plants which was afterwards the basis of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his poem entitled _Die Alpen_, which was finished in March 1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his _Gedichte_. This poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the earliest signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains.

In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical and anatomical researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured for him from George II. in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of Gottingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which he occupied his Gottingen professorship was immense. Apart from the ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the results of which are preserved in the numerous works associated with his name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical composition, while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_), to which he is said to have contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every branch of human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the religious questions, both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the erection of the Reformed church in Gottingen was mainly due to his unwearied energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing interests he never felt at home in Gottingen; his untravelled heart kept ever turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to resign his chair and return to Switzerland.

The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of a _Rathhausammann_ which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of his _Bibliotheca medica_, the botanical, surgical and anatomical parts of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three philosophical romances--_Usong_ (1771), _Alfred_ (1773) and _Fabius and Cato_ (1774),--in which his views as to the respective merits of despotism, of limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some time he supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he communicated a paper to the _Proceedings_ of the Gottingen Royal Society in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed, however, to have hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, who had been three times married, left eight children, the eldest of whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.).

Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his very numerous works in various branches of science and literature (a complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of vol. 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned friends):--(1) Anatomical:--_Icones anatomicae_ (1743-1754); _Disputationes anatomicae selectiores_ (1746-1752); and _Opera acad. minora anatomici argumenti_ (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:--_De respiratione experimenta anatomica_ (1747); _Primae lineae physiologiae_ (1747); and _Elementa physiologiae corporis humani_ (1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:--_Opuscula pathologica_ (1754); _Disputationum chirurg. collectio_ (1777); also careful editions of Boerhaave's _Praelectiones academicae in suas institutiones rei medicae_ (1739), and of the _Artis medicae principia_ of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:--_Enumeratio methodica stirpium Helveticarum_ (1742); _Opuscula botanica_ (1749); _Bibliotheca botanica_ (1771). (5) Theological:--_Briefe uber die wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung_ (1772); and _Briefe zur Vertheidigung der Offenbarung_ (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:--_Gedichte_ (1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and "Tagebucher" or journals were published posthumously.

See J. G. Zimmermann, _Das Leben des Herrn von Haller_ (1755), and the articles by Forster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyklopadie_, and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel, printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of Haller's _Gedichte_.

HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in Wurttemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon, and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed assistant preacher at the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had begun to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten theses for the conference of Bern which established the new religion in that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved in Zwingli's works. He died on the 25th of February 1536.

Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861).

HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston, London, on the 29th of October 1656. His father, a wealthy soapboiler, placed him at St Paul's school, where he was equally distinguished for classical and mathematical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of the compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (_Phil. Trans._ xi. 683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment of the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed to himself the task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, ill-chosen station, and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed the retardation of the pendulum in approaching the equator; and during his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a transit of Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of employing similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341 stars won the title of the "Southern Tycho," and by the translation to the heavens of the "Royal Oak," earned a degree of master of arts, conferred at Oxford by the king's command on the 3rd of December 1678, almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. Six months later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of 1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he observed, with G. D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and having returned to England, he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for fifty-five years. He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of a method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to perceive that the central force of the solar system must decrease inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the publication of the _Principia_. The labour and expense of passing this great work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote the prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line--

Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos.

In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he received a commission as captain of the "Paramour Pink" for the purpose of making extensive observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the 52nd degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a _General Chart of the Variation of the Compass_ in 1701; and immediately afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he produced in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was nominated, November 1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary degree of doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes (eighteen years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church, Lee, Kent.

Halley's most notable scientific achievements were--his detection of the "long inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the moon's mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the fixed stars (1718), his theory of variation (1683), including the hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and his suggestion of the magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), coupled with a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. 348) of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus.

His principal works are _Catalogus stellarum australium_ (London, 1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's _Historia coelestis_ (1725); _Synopsis astronomiae cometicae_ (Oxford, 1705); _Astronomical Tables_ (London, 1752); also eighty-one miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the _Philosophical Transactions_. To these should be added his version from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the treatise of Apollonius _De sectione rationis_, with a restoration of his two lost books _De sectione spatii_, both published at Oxford in 1706; also his fine edition of the _Conics_ of Apollonius, with the treatise by Serenus _De sectione cylindri et coni_ (Oxford, 1710, folio). His edition of the _Spherics_ of Menelaus was published by his friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. (1757); _Gent. Mag._ xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), iv. 536; J. Aubrey, _Lives_, ii. 365; F. Baily, _Account of Flamsteed_; Sir D. Brewster, _Life of Newton_; R. Grant, _History of Astronomy_, p. 477 and _passim_; A. J. Rudolph, _Bulletin of Bibliography_, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, "Bibliography of Halley's Comet," _Smithsonian Misc. Collections_, vol. xlviii. pt. i. (1905); _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A collection of manuscripts regarding Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, Oxford; and many of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office and in the library of the Royal Society. (A. M. C.)

HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was born in 1807 at Steinsstathir in Eyjafjartharsysla in the north of that island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastathr. In 1832 he went to the university of Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained pecuniary assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired by his writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories. He was well read in German literature, Heine and Schiller being his favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic metaphors made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was mixed up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni Thorarensen had done much to purify the language, but Jonas Hallgrimsson completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the so-called _rimur_, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jonas Hallgrimsson, who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jonas Hallgrimsson appeared in the periodical _Fjolnir_, which he began publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konrath Gislason, a well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thomas Saemundsson. _Fjolnir_ had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the years went by its influence became enormous; and when it at last ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in _Ny Felagsrit_ and other patriotic periodicals which took its place. Jonas Hallgrimsson, who died in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. He introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical works are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the old harp of Iceland. (S. Bl.)

HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830-1877), British journalist and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and discarding the name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the _Cornhill Magazine_. From 1861 he contributed largely to _All the Year Round_, and many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these _Little Em'ly_ (1869), his adaptation of _David Copperfield_, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long run at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April 1877.