Part 17

HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [Abu-l-Qasim Hammad ibn Abi Laila Sapur (or ibn Maisara)] (8th century A.D.), Arabic scholar, was of Dailamite descent, but was born in Kufa. The date of his birth is given by some as 694, by others as 714. He was reputed to be the most learned man of his time in regard to the "days of the Arabs" (i.e. their chief battles), their stories, poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted that he could recite a hundred long _qasidas_ for each letter of the alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from pre-Islamic times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. Hence his name _Hammad ar-Rawiya_, "the reciter of verses from memory." The Omayyad caliph Walid is said to have tested him, the result being that he recited 2900 qasidas of pre-Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 dirhems. He was favoured by Yazid II. and his successor Hisham, who brought him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say that in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the genius of the Arabic language, and that he made more than thirty--some say three hundred--mistakes of pronunciation in reciting the Koran. To him is ascribed the collecting of the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). No diwan of his is extant, though he composed verse of his own and probably a good deal of what he ascribed to earlier poets.

Biography in McG. de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. pp. 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.)

HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862), German poet, was born on the 7th of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went to Leipzig to study law, but devoted himself mainly to philosophy and belles lettres. Returning to Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, _Das seltsame Fruhstuck_, introduced him to the literary society of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and from this time he devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he returned to Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 edited the feuilleton of _Sachsische konstitutionelle Zeitung_, and took the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in Dresden. His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and he bought a small property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his return from a residence of several years at Nuremberg, he died, on the 23rd of August 1862.

Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama _Die Bruder_ (1856), a number of unimportant romances, and the novel _Einkehr und Umkehr_ (Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests upon his epigrammatic and didactic poems. His _Schau' um dich, und schau' in dich_ (1851), which made his name, has passed through more than thirty editions. It was followed by _Zu allen guten Stunden_ (1854), _Fester Grund_ (1857), _Auf stillen Wegen_ (1859), and _Lerne, liebe, lebe_ (1862). Besides these he wrote a book of Turkish songs, _Unter dem Halbmond_ (Leipzig, 1860), and rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the popular religious anthology _Leben und Heimat in Gott_, of which a 14th edition was published in 1900.

See C. G. E. Am Ende, _Julius Hammer_ (Nuremberg, 1872).

HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with head fixed transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has one flat face, the other may be shaped to serve various purposes, e.g. with a claw, a pick, &c. The implement is used for breaking, beating, driving nails, rivets, &c., and the word is applied to heavy masses of metal moved by machinery, and used for similar purposes. (See TOOL.) "Hammer" is a word common to Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German and Danish, and in Dutch as _hamer_, in Swedish as _hammare_. The ultimate origin is unknown. It has been connected with the root seen in the Greek [Greek: kamptein], to bend; the word would mean, therefore, something crooked or bent. A more illuminating suggestion connects the word with the Slavonic _kamy_, a stone, cf. Russian _kamen_, and ultimately with Sanskrit _acman_, a pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's hammer, the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word is applied to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or function. Thus the "striker" in a clock, or in a bell, when it is sounded by an independent lever and not by the swinging of the "tongue," is called a "hammer"; similarly, in the "action" of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden shank with felt-covered head attached to a key, the striking of which throws the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a fire-arm, the "hammer" is that part which by its impact on the cap or primer explodes the charge. (See GUN.) The hammer, more usually known by its French name of _martel de fer_, was a medieval hand-weapon. With a long shaft it was used by infantry, especially when acting against mounted troops. With a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was also used by horse-soldiers. The _martel_ had one part of the head with a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both sides were pointed. There are 16th century examples in which a hand-gun forms the handle. The name of "hammer," in Latin _malleus_, has been frequently applied to men, and also to books, with reference to destructive power. Thus on the tomb of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name of _Scotorum Malleus_, the "Hammer of the Scots." The title of "Hammer of Heretics," _Malleus Haereticorum_, has been given to St Augustine and to Johann Faber, whose tract against Luther is also known by the name. Thomas Cromwell was styled _Malleus Monachorum_. The famous text-book of procedure in cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Kramer in 1489, was called _Hexenhammer_ or _Malleus Maleficarum_ (see WITCHCRAFT).

The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth covering the box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained from the hammer and other tools carried in the box-seat by the coachman for repairs, &c. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that while the word occurs as early as 1465, the use of a box-seat is not known before the 17th century. Other suggestions are that it is a corruption of "hamper-cloth," or of "hammock-cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a mistake. Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat connects the word with a Dutch word _hemel_, meaning a canopy. In the name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part should be "ammer." This appears in the German name, _Emmerling_, and the word probably means the "chirper," cf. the Ger. _jammern_, to wail, lament.

HAMMERBEAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a Gothic open timber roof, of which the finest example is that over Westminster Hall (1395-1399). In order to give greater height in the centre, the ordinary tie beam is cut through, and the portions remaining, known as hammerbeams, are supported by curved braces from the wall; in Westminster Hall, in order to give greater strength to the framing, a large arched piece of timber is carried across the hall, rising from the bottom of the wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter being also supported by curved braces rising from the end of the hammerbeam. The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 ft. 6 in. The height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft., and to the underside of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an additional height in the centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained. Other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and there are numerous examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout England and particularly in the eastern counties. The ends of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded, and the spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery, as in Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rarely, the collar beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple, London.

HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe. Pop. (1900) 2300. It is situated on an island (Kvalo) off the N.W. coast of Norway, in Finmarken _amt_ (county), in 70 deg. 40' 11" N., the latitude being that of the extreme north of Alaska. Its position affords the best illustration of the warm climatic influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the mean annual temperature being 36 deg. F. (January 31 deg., July 57 deg.). Hammerfest is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North Cape. The character of this coast differs from the southern, the islands being fewer and larger, and of table shape. The narrow strait Strommen separates Kvalo from the larger Seiland, whose snow-covered hills with several glaciers rise above 3500 ft., while an insular rampart of mountains, Soro, protects the strait and harbour from the open sea. The town is timber-built and modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, and schools were all rebuilt after fire in 1890. There is also a Roman Catholic church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the 13th of May to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the townsfolk. Vessels set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and the Kara Sea; and trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and Danish but British, German and particularly Russian vessels engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted fish are exported with some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and coal and salt for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of tame reindeer are driven out to swim Strommen and graze in the summer pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are called home again. From the 18th of November to the 23rd of January the sun is not seen, and the enforced quiet of winter prevails. Electric light was introduced in the town in 1891. On the Fuglenaes or Birds' Cape, which protects the harbour on the north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norse and Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the stations of the expedition for the measurement of the arc of the meridian in 1816-1852. Nor is this its only association with science; for it was one of the spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his series of pendulum experiments in 1823. The ascent of the Sadlen or the Tyven in the neighbourhood is usually undertaken by travellers for the view of the barren, snow-clad Arctic landscape, the bluff indented coast, and the vast expanse of the Arctic Ocean.

HAMMER-KOP, or HAMMERHEAD, an African bird, which has been regarded as a stork and as a heron, the _Scopus umbretta_ of ornithologists, called the "Umbre" by T. Pennant, now placed in a separate family _Scopidae_ between the herons and storks. It was discovered by M. Adanson, the French traveller, in Senegal about the middle of the 19th century, and was described by M. J. Brisson in 1760. It has since been found to inhabit nearly the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the "hammerkop" (hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than a raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter, with a flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit, and placed either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an almost uniform brown colour, slightly glossed with purple and its tail barred with black, has a long occipital crest, generally borne horizontally, so as to give rise to its common name. It is somewhat sluggish by day, but displays much activity at dusk, when it will go through a series of strange performances. (A. N.)

HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH, FREIHERR von (1774-1856), Austrian orientalist, was born at Graz on the 9th of June 1774, the son of Joseph Johann von Hammer, and received his early education mainly in Vienna. Entering the diplomatic service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a position in the Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity he took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney Smith and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the French. In 1807 he returned home from the East, after which he was made a privy councillor, and, on inheriting in 1835 the estates of the countess Purgstall in Styria, was given the title of "freiherr." In 1847 he was elected president of the newly-founded academy, and he died at Vienna on the 23rd of November 1856.

For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the most diverse subjects and published numerous texts and translations of Arabic, Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural that a scholar who traversed so large a field should lay himself open to the criticism of specialists, and he was severely handled by Friedrich Christian Diez (1794-1876), who, in his _Unfug und Betrug_ (1815), devoted to him nearly 600 pages of abuse. Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same work that Sir William Jones (q.v.) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy for France. He was, like his younger but greater English contemporary, Edward William Lane, with whom he came into friendly conflict on the subject of the origin of _The Thousand and One Nights_, an assiduous worker, and in spite of many faults did more for oriental studies than most of his critics put together.

Von Hammer's principal work is his _Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches_ (10 vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are _Constantinopolis und der Bosporos_ (1822); _Sur les origines russes_ (St Petersburg, 1825); _Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst_ (1836); _Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak_ (1840); _Geschichte der Chane der Krim_ (1856); and an unfinished _Litteraturgeschichte der Araber_ (1850-1856). His _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818) has been translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835). Texts and translations--_Eth-Thaalabi_, Arab. and Ger. (1829); _Ibn Wahshiyah, History of the Mongols_, Arab. and Eng. (1806); _El-Wassaf_, Pers. and Ger. (1856); _Esch-Schebistani's Rosenflor des Geheimnisses_, Pers. and Ger. (1838); _Ez-Zamakhsheri, Goldene Halsbander_, Arab. and Germ. (1835); _El-Ghazzali, Hujjet-el-Islam_, Arab. and Ger. (1838); _El-Hamawi, Das arab. Hohe Lied der Liebe_, Arab. and Ger. (1854). Translations of--_El-Mutanebbi's Poems; Er-Resmi's Account of his Embassy_ (1809); _Contes inedits des 1001 nuits_ (1828). Besides these and smaller works, von Hammer contributed numerous essays and criticisms to the _Fundgruben des Orients_, which he edited; to the _Journal asiatique_; and to many other learned journals; above all to the _Transactions_ of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften" of Vienna, of which he was mainly the founder; and he translated Evliya Effendi's _Travels in Europe_, for the English Oriental Translation Fund. For a fuller list of his works, which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, see _Comptes rendus_ of the Acad. des Inscr. et des Belles-Lettres (1857). See also Schlottman, _Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall_ (Zurich, 1857).

HAMMERSMITH, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the river Thames, and extending N. and W. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The name appears in the early forms of _Hermodewode_ and _Hamersmith_; the derivation is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place with a haven (_hythe_). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham as a winter camp of Danish invaders in 879, when they occupied the island of Hame, which may be identified with Chiswick Eyot. Hammersmith consists of residential streets of various classes. There are many good houses in the districts of Brook Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt Park and Starch Green in the west. Shepherd's Bush in the east is a populous and poorer quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, distilleries, coach factories, motor works, and other industrial establishments are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough. The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk Road, from Acton on the west, converging at Shepherd's Bush and continuing towards Notting Hill; King Street from Chiswick on the south-west, continued as Hammersmith Broadway and Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from Hammersmith Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham, converging at the Broadway. Old Hammersmith Bridge, designed by Tierney Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension bridge erected near London. This bridge was found insecure and replaced in 1884-1887. Until 1834 Hammersmith formed part of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was built as a chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631. The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monuments preserved is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a prominent royalist during the civil wars and a benefactor of the parish. Schools and religious houses are numerous. St Paul's school is one of the principal public schools in England. It was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean of St Paul's, under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears that Colet actually refounded and reorganized a school which had been attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times; the first mention of such a school dates from the early part of the 12th century (see an article in _The Times_, London, July 7, 1909, on the occasion of the celebration of the quatercentenary of Colet's foundation). The school was moved to its present site in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The number of foundation scholars, that is, the number for which Colet's endowment provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about 600. The school governors are appointed by the Mercers' Company (by which body the new site was acquired), and the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London. Close to the school is St Paul's preparatory school, and at Brook Green is a girls' school in connexion with the main school. There are, besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624), part of the income of which is devoted to general charitable purposes; the Godolphin school, founded in the 16th century and remodelled as a grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House of Little Sisters of the Poor, the Convent of the Sacred Heart, and other convents. The town hall, the West London hospital with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood Scrubbs prison are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the Hammersmith school of art and a Roman Catholic training college. Besides the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are extensive recreation grounds in the north of the borough at Wormwood Scrubbs (193 acres), and others of lesser extent. An important place of entertainment is Olympia, near Hammersmith Road and the Addison Road station on the West London railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; while at Shepherd's Bush are the extensive grounds and buildings first occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including a huge stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of the borough is the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery, in which Cardinal Manning and many other prominent members of this faith are buried. In the neighbourhood of the Mall, bordering the river, are the house where Thomson wrote his poem "The Seasons," and Kelmscott House, the residence of William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen, and 30 councillors. Area, 2286.3 acres.