CHAPTER II.

_State of Marriage among the Indians._

Marriage, in the Samscred language, is called _Vivàha_, or _Pànigrahanna_; the latter of which implies joining of hands, from _Pàni_ the hand, and _Grahanna_ laying hold. In the common Malabar dialect it is called _Pennbeta_; that is, a bond or an union with a female. _Kettunu_ signifies to bind; _Pennkettunu_, to bind one’s self, or to unite a woman to one’s self by means of a bond. _Kettiastri_ signifies a bound woman; _Kettiaven_, a bound man, that is, a man who gives a woman a love-pledge; who puts a necklace round her neck, betrothes himself to her in this manner, and declares her to be his married wife. _Bharta_ signifies a husband, he who rules; and _Bharya_, a woman or wife, who is subject to rule. These modes of expression are, however, common only among the noble casts, and are to be distinguished from the word _Kùtticondupògunu_, which implies the same as to lead a woman to your father’s house, or to take her home to your own; by which is signified, at the same time, the method of betrothing practised among the meaner casts. This second kind of marriage is performed, as among the Romans, _per usucapionem_; but with this difference, that the bridegroom must present himself before the superintendant of his cast, tell him the name of his bride, and, as a token that he actually takes her to wife, put into his hand a small stone. From this it appears, that the foundation of marriage among the Indians is in all cases a real contract or agreement, which acquires perfect validity according to the laws, and in a court of justice.

Though polygamy is tolerated by the Indian laws, because it tends to promote population, the _Bharta_, whatever number of wives he may maintain, has only one lawful spouse, to whom he is actually married, and who superintends his domestic concerns. She is called in the Samscred _Pànigrahidì_, the woman with whom he joined hands; _Pradhaninì_, the chief; _Mahishì_, the great; _Cudbumbinì_, the housewife; _Sadhadharmanì_, the woman of a thousand services, virtues and advantages. The rest are called only _Bhòguinya_, concubines. The children of the former are called _Sudharmaputra_, that is, lawful, and inherit the property left by their father; but the children of the concubines, as soon as born, are degraded into the cast of the _Shudra_, which may with propriety be considered as a nursery for the illegitimate children of the higher casts, as almost all concubines belong to that of the _Shudra_, and as the rule in law, _partus sequitur ventrem_, prevails, in full force, throughout all India. It thence follows, that a prince who espouses a woman of a cast different from his own, cannot make her children his heirs, and much less appoint them his successors. Such was the case, while I was in India, with the king of Cochin, _Perumpadapil_, and the king of Travancor, _Rama Varmer_. When I resided at _Tiruvandaburam_, I saw with my own eyes that the children of the latter were educated in the same manner as the _Shudras_. The particular object of this law is, that persons of a low condition may never rise to the throne or the priesthood.

The crime of adultery, _Abàradha_, which may be committed by two betrothed as well as married persons, is punished by expulsion from the cast, and, according to circumstances, even with banishment. If the bride or spouse is alone guilty, she loses the prerogative of her cast, and is sold as a slave to some foreigner, whether he be Christian, Jew, or Mahometan. This was the case, in particular, with the celebrated wife of a Brahman at _Alangatta_, who had been degraded and sold, and who was afterwards baptised by the bishop of _Arcopolis_ in Malabar. She spoke and wrote the Samscred language with great ease. I myself once baptised, at _Edapalli_, a Brahman woman, who had also been guilty of the like offence. When I asked her why she wished to embrace the Roman Catholic religion, she replied: _Inika dòsham vannu poi_; that is, I have been guilty of a sin. This is the common mode of expression employed by the Indians in such cases; for adultery is one of the five mortal sins, which they call _Pancia mahà pàva_. Other women, however, not of the Brahmanic cast, are sold as slaves when they hold criminal intercourse with a man of inferior condition, or do so when they have married into another cast. But this crime is overlooked when women, over whom their cast has no power, lead irregular lives, or when they indulge in such licentiousness with men belonging to a higher cast. If the wife of a man who married _per usucapionem_, and who belongs to an inferior class, is guilty of conjugal infidelity, the husband repairs to the superintendant of the cast, and causes him to return the stone which he delivered to him at his marriage. If he has accused his wife of adultery only in this manner, he conducts her back to the house of her parents; and this ceremony supplies the place of an actual separation. In India marriages are allowed to the third degree of consanguinity. On the coast of Malabar a custom prevails, in the cast to which the braziers belong, that the eldest brother alone marries; but the rest, when he is absent, supply his place with their sister-in-law.

According to a custom which the Brahmans, the _Vayshya_, the _Kshetria_, and the Christians of St. Thomas in Malabar have introduced among themselves, the bride must always carry her dowery to the bridegroom. When she has done this, and left her father’s house, she receives nothing farther, and loses her right of inheriting any of the patrimony destined for the female part of the family. By means of this regulation, which prevails throughout all the superior casts, the Indians endeavour to prevent their property from being divided, and their families from being reduced to poverty, which would undoubtedly be the consequence if the married daughters were allowed to come in for an equal share. The governor of Cochin, M. Van Angelbeck, whom I have already had occasion to mention, was desirous of making some change in this respect among the Christians belonging to the Malabar cast, _Mundacàrer_, who were subject to the Dutch East India Company. He therefore commissioned me to negotiate on this head with these Christians, who assembled several times for that purpose in my habitation at _Mattincèra_; but I was not able to prevail on them to comply with his wishes. They always referred to the antiquity of the practice; and maintained, that the greater part of their families would be infallibly ruined if any other was substituted in its stead. However this may be, it is certain that many young women never get husbands, because it is considered as absolutely necessary that they should bring with them a handsome portion. This is the case in particular with the daughters of the Brahmans, six or seven of whom are often in the same house together, and remain unmarried for want of doweries. The condition of these girls is indeed deserving of pity; and chiefly for this reason, because the Indians, as I have already observed in another place, combine a very contemptible idea with a state of celibacy. The _Taly_, or love-pledge, is hung round the neck of a betrothed girl, even so early as her seventh year, though she remains in the house of her parents till her twelfth.

The ceremonies used in India, at betrothing and marriages, are as follows:--When the parents of the _Canya_, or young woman, have made choice of a young man whom they wish to give her as a husband, they announce their intention to the two Brahmans, whom the two families employ in astrological affairs. These Brahmans make strict enquiry respecting the young man’s character, and examine the constellations under which the presumptive bride and bridegroom were born. If these constellations have a favourable aspect, the parents of the _Canya_ must procure a considerable quantity of white sandal wood, magnel, salt, coco-nut oil, betel, areca, and about two or three hundred coco-nuts. When all these articles are ready, the bridegroom is conducted to the house of the _Canya_; and the Brahman, in the presence of all the relations assembled, performs in due order the ceremony of the _Hòma_, or burnt-offering, presented to the whole _Dèvà_, that is, the gods, under whom are understood the seven planets, which are solemnly invoked as witnesses of this betrothing, and entreated to grant a fortunate and long continuance to the union. For this purpose he takes different kinds of costly and sweet-smelling wood, such as sandal, _aghil_, _arasu_, and camphor wood; cuts them in pieces about a palm in length; places them in a square pit, and makes a fire of them; which, however, must not be blown, but excited by a fan. As soon as it begins to burn, the Brahmans repeat certain forms of prayer, by which they solicit the protection of the before-mentioned gods; and throw into the fire oil, butter, sugar, honey, barley, and rice boiled in milk. The bride and bridegroom stand by with the most devout attention, and from time to time throw into the fire also inflammable substances of the like kind, that it may burn incessantly for at least a fourth part of the day. When this ceremony is finished, the Brahman causes the bridegroom to kneel down; places a piece of gold or silver brocade on his head; puts a gold ring on his finger, and paints a crescent on his forehead with pulverised sandal wood and _curcuma_. When he has ornamented the bridegroom in this manner, he puts into his hand a coco-nut painted with all sorts of colours, and says: “Such a person (repeating his name), the son of ----, in presence of all the gods, now gives his daughter (here he repeats her name), as wife to ----, who is the son of ----.” This form the _Canya_ must repeat word for word, and at the same time mention all the names. Two copies of it are then written upon _Olas_, or palm-leaves, on which are inscribed also the day of the betrothing, and the names of the constellations under which the bride and bridegroom were born. These _Olas_, painted with _curcuma_, and ornamented with various kinds of figures, are exchanged by the newly-betrothed pair; and from that moment their union is considered as insoluble. Different musical instruments are then heard in concert, with singers of both sexes, who join in songs of joy; and female dancers exhibit their whole art, to afford entertainment to the wedding guests. During this time the mother of the bride presents to the Brahmans a bason filled with consecrated ashes, the remains of the above-described burnt-offering; and she always chooses such a position that her face is directed towards the east. The Brahman takes from the bason, three times in succession, a handful of ashes, and suffers them to escape slowly through his fingers. When these ashes form on the ground a round figure, it is called _Sudharshana_ and _Ciakra_, that is, the wheel of happy omen; for the _Ciakra_, or wheel, is the badge and characteristic mark of _Vishnu_, and consequently has a reference to the unanimity, happiness, and fruitfulness of the new-wedded pair. These consecrated ashes, together with the above mentioned _Olas_, are carefully preserved in a particular vessel, and considered as a valuable pledge of mutual fidelity. The Brahman, however, first distributes a small quantity of them to every person present; and paints on their forehead, with a sort of ointment, consisting of pulverised sandal wood, saffron, and dried cow’s dung, the name of God, or the word _Tirunàma_. When these ceremonies are ended, the bride’s mother washes the Brahman’s feet; but the father pours water on his hands, and, having dried them, presents him with a piece of silk or cotton stuff, and a few _panams_ in gold or silver. Sometimes the Brahman receives also a calf; and this present is, in general, the most agreeable.

When the marriage contract has, in this manner, been confirmed on both sides, the bridegroom returns home, and the _Canya_ is left at her own house; for the consummation does not actually take place till the bride has had her monthly purification, so that no doubt can remain of her being arrived at the state of puberty. As soon as this is told to the bridegroom, he makes preparations for the wedding, and with that view repairs, accompanied by all his relations, to the house of the bride, before which an arbour has been constructed. It is made fast to four poles sunk to a considerable depth in the earth; but before the first pole has been erected, the Brahmans approach the hole destined to receive it, and, in honour of _Gannèsha_ and _Lakshmi_, besprinkle it with milk and water, and throw into it a few _Arasu_ leaves, together with a little raw rice mixed with saffron. When all the four poles are placed upright, a red cord, to which a great number of _Mava_ leaves are fastened, is wound three or four times round them at the top. In the middle of the arbour is raised a small altar, on which is deposited the image of the god _Poleyar_, who is the same as the before-mentioned _Gannèsha_; and behind the altar is planted a twig of the tree _Arasu_, which, as I have already said, is considered as a symbol of the Trinity of the Indians; that is to say, of _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_. Near this branch is placed seven earthen vessels, in which rice has been sown, and which, at the time of this solemnity, must be at least two inches in height. These seven vessels have a symbolic reference to the seven planets.

When the arbour has been sufficiently ornamented in this manner, preparations are made for washing and purifying the bride. For that purpose seven married women, each of whom bears a vessel, go in company with the Brahmans, and attended by musicians, singers, and female dancers, to some river or pond in the neighbourhood, and draw from it water, which, with various ceremonies, and the greatest carefulness, is carried to the house where the wedding is celebrated. Widows are altogether disqualified for this office, and in general for all those which relate to marriage; and on such occasions dare not even shew themselves, because they are considered as beings from whom society derives no benefit whatever. The above seven married women undress the bride; pour a few drops of water upon her head, and rub her body over from top to bottom with the fibres of the _Ingia_ plant. They then anoint her breast, shoulders and knees with the _curcuma_, and bind a piece of white muslin around her loins. This piece of muslin is made fast behind to a girdle, which consists also of a piece of muslin of the like kind. Over this sort of apron they clothe the bride with the so-called _Pidambara_, being a piece of very fine silk of a golden-yellow colour, which hangs down from the head, is drawn under the left armpit, and, forming a kind of mantle on the middle of the body, descends to the feet so as to cover the legs behind. The Indians consider this _Pidambara_ as sacred; because _Vishnu_, according to their mythology, always uses such a robe when he appears to those who worship him. Such of my readers as are acquainted with antiquities will here no doubt call to mind the _Flammeum_ of the ancient Romans, which seems to have had a striking similarity to this _Pidambara_.

The ornaments which the bride puts on are very numerous, and consist of the following articles:

1st, The _Tòlvalà_, a bracelet, which is fastened on above the elbow.

2d, The _Cadacam_, a golden bracelet worn below the elbow.

3d, The _Nettipatam_, a small golden frontlet.--Both these may be seen on the ancient Egyptian monuments.

4th, The _Shigamani_, a golden pin round which the hair is twisted up in such a manner that it lies quite flat.

5th, The _Karniga_, a golden rose, which the Indian women, when they wish to appear in state, fasten into the aperture of their ears, because they are very long and wide.

6th, _Cundala_, golden ear-rings, which are often set with jewels.

7th, The _Màla_, a gold chain which is put around the neck, and hangs down to the middle.

8th, _Urmiga_, a gold ring, which the bride wears on her finger.

9th, _Talà_, a silver hoop, or ring, which the Indian women fasten round their naked ancles, because they use neither shoes nor stockings.

10th, _Cadacam_, a second golden bracelet, which, besides the one above mentioned, surrounds the wrist.

11th, _Pushpamàla_, a necklace of artificial flowers.

12th, _Tularsimàla_, a garland of sweet basil, for which the Indians have a particular fondness.

When the bride is completely dressed, and covered with all her ornaments, she is conducted, by the before-mentioned seven women, to the door of the dressing-room, where she remains standing for some time with her face looking outwards. She is preceded by one of the women, who holds in one hand a burning lamp with seven wicks, and in the other seven pieces of rice dough mixed with _magnel_. The Brahman then repeats some prayers, the intention of which is to protect the bride from all kinds of misfortune and witchcraft; but, in particular, from the witchcraft of the eyes. For the same purpose, the woman who goes before her raises the seven pieces of rice dough three times above the bride’s head, and then does the same thing with the lamp.

When this ceremony is ended, and the bride’s feet have been washed, she is seated on a mat, which supplies the place of a marriage-bed. The singers then begin to sing all sorts of nuptial songs, in which great praise is bestowed on the new-married couple, with wishes that they may produce many and good children; and, in general, that in the married state they may be fortunate and happy. The bride, in the mean time, holds a betel leaf before her face, in order to conceal her virgin blushes. As a specimen of these songs, I shall subjoin the following, in the dialect of Malabar:

Shri sagala gunna nàthane Shri Lakshmi gunna madàve Mahà Meru yatha sughame Sadadam pùrti tarename Sàdhu dèhangam sushilaye Sàdhu cusuma sugha bàle Mahà virakti su canyaghe Mahà viren Kitti Bartavine.

That is: “Happy Sun! the giver of all felicity; and thou happy mother _Lakshmi_! grant them the enjoyment of all those good things which rejoice the heart on the mountain _Meru_ (the abode of the blessed gods). Ensure this pleasure to the modest, timid bride, who exhales an odour like that of the sweetest flowers.--Grant this, ye who have blessed the beautiful, worthy maid with a good husband!”

While these songs are sung, the bridegroom puts on his wedding dress, in another apartment of the same house in which the _Canya_ resides; and as soon as he appears, the _Hòma_ is kindled, which the new-married couple carefully endeavour to keep up, by throwing into it sandal wood, frankincense, oil, butter, and other inflammable substances. After this ceremony the bridegroom seats himself on a kind of stool, called _Pida_; places both his hands together, and holds them straight out before him. The Brahman fills them with rice, betel, and areca; puts a coco nut on the top, and binds around his left arm a woollen band, to the end of which is fastened a piece of _curcuma_, or Indian saffron. Whilst he is doing this he repeats the names of the three chief Indian deities, viz. _Brahma_, _Vishnu_, and _Shiva_ (or _Rudra_); and, at the same time, casts three knots on the band. Still repeating the names of these deities, he next paints a sacred sign on the bridegroom’s forehead with the hallowed ashes of the _Hòma_ which have remained; and which are called _Tirunìra_. This figure represents either the eye of Shiva, a crescent, the water-lily (_Nymphæa_), or a pyramid, the emblem of fire. When these ceremonies are finished, the bridegroom orders a small dish to be brought; throws into it every thing put into his hands, as a token of his respect for the gods; and makes a present of the whole to his barber, or the man who washed him, and to the surrounding musicians. The Brahman then steps forwards, and hangs a garland of flowers around his neck; upon which he rises up from his stool, places himself in a palanquin, and in that manner is carried through all the streets of the town. He is attended by the company assembled to celebrate the wedding, and by all the musicians, singers, and female dancers, making a loud noise, which resounds throughout the whole place. As such marriage-processions are generally in the night, a great number of torches, lamps, candles and lights are exhibited on the occasion; and various small transparent figures, painted upon paper, and representing different Indian deities, are carried round at the same time.

As soon as the bridegroom and his attendants have returned to the house, a number of superstitious ceremonies are performed, the object of which is to preserve the new-married pair from witchcraft. When they are finished, a small copper vessel is placed before the bridegroom, filled with betel, areca and bananas, on the top of which lies a coco-nut streaked with saffron, and also the _Taly_ or pledge of conjugal fidelity. The father then desires the bride to hold out her hands, pours all the above-mentioned articles into them, and lays a piece of gold coin on the top. As soon as the bride has received them, the father lays hold of her hands, and, taking every thing from her that she held in them, puts them into the hands of his son-in-law. At that moment the Brahman says, with a clear loud voice, “All the gods are witnesses, that I give thee this my daughter to wife. Behold her portion!” These words are repeated three times by the bride’s father. The Brahman then takes the _Taly_, pronounces a prayer over it, divides the coco-nut, which lay in the bason, into two equal parts, and again deposits in it the two halfs. After this he presents the _Taly_ to be touched by each of the wedding guests, and, when that is done, gives it to the bridegroom, who hangs it around the neck of the bride. The observation of this circumstance is of the greatest importance; for upon it depends properly the validity of the marriage, which is afterwards considered as insoluble. The _Taly_ itself is a small gold figure, representing the deity _Poleyar_, or, what amounts to the same thing, _Gannèsha_. It is suspended by a small cord, dyed with saffron, and consecrated by the Brahman. Some of the inferior casts use, instead of this gold figure, the tooth of a tyger, which is dedicated to _Shiva_. When the bridegroom has hung the _Taly_ around the bride’s neck, the Brahman lays hold of the new-married pair, each by the ring-finger, and in that manner leads them thrice round the small altar, upon which the image of _Gannèsha_ is placed. During this ceremony the new-married pair must always have a burning lamp near them. One thing never neglected is, that the bridegroom, when he passes with his bride over the flat stone on which the Brahman broke the coco-nut, must always manage so that the bride may touch the stone with her foot. When these ceremonies are ended, the bridegroom takes a vessel with milk, applies it to his mouth, and gives it to his bride to drink: the vessel is then handed round from guest to guest, who all put it to their lips in succession. The solemnity is then concluded with a second procession. The bridegroom again places himself in his palanquin, and is borne round through the city in the same manner as before. Some days after, the band, which the Brahman, as already observed, bound round his arm with great solemnity, is unloosed. The young wife now attends to the management of her domestic affairs; performs her ablutions, purifications, and offerings; and never goes beyond the threshold of her house without the express permission of her husband.

* * * * *

To conclude this chapter, I shall here subjoin some Samscred verses, which relate to the illicit amours of the Indians, and which place the morality of these people in a very advantageous point of view.

Ròguinì, Reggiasuàlá, Garbhanni, Dhrdàvrda, Ràgia vargida brshya, Lagida, Bhayàdhara. Ittaram èszuvidham strìgenanghele Cennu Satvaram parigrahicìduvan yògyamalla.

That is: “It is unworthy of a man to make use of the following kinds of women: 1st, A sick woman, _Ròguinì_; 2d, One who has her monthly purifications, _Reggiasuàla_; 3d, One who is pregnant, _Garbhannì_; 4th, One who has been divorced, _Drdhàvrda_; 5th, One who has been proscribed, or excluded from her cast, _Ragia vargida brshya_; 6th, One who has no shame, _Lagidà_; 7th, One who is afraid of the mysteries of love, _Bhyadharà_.”--Could any one have expected among these Pagans such pure and sound morality?

I must also observe, that the marriage-ceremonies, which I have here described, are every-where practised in the same manner throughout _Malayalam_, that is, Malabar; in the kingdom of _Pandi_, or _Madura_; in _Maïssur_, _Congao_, and _Carnàdage_ or _Carnate_. I will not, however, assert that they are generally used in districts where the ancient religious system of the inhabitants is not preserved in its original purity. In the northern part of India, which has been exposed to the hostile incursions of the Persians, Greeks, Arabs, and Tartars, many things may perhaps be established on a different footing; but I cannot speak of this with any certainty, as I never had an opportunity of visiting those parts of the country[162].