CHAPTER III.

_Geographical, statistical, and historical Observations on the Kingdoms of Tanjaur, Marava, Madura, and Carnada._

The principal cities in the northern part of India are the following:

_Caschemir_, which, according to the map published at Paris in the year 1781, is situated under the 35th degree of north latitude. This city is certainly the _Caspira_ or _Caspirus_ of Herodotus, as D’Anville has already very properly observed[26].

_Cabul_, a city which, on the side of Persia, is as it were the key of India. It was obliged formerly to pay _tria millia nummum talenta_ to Alexander the Great, as he was returning from the war against Porus. It lies in the latitude of 34°[27].

_Tatta_, or _Tattanagar_, occurs in Pliny under the name of _Pattala_, or _Pattalena_, and is situated at the mouth of the Indus, or _Sindhu_. In this city Apollonius of Tyana once resided a month. It contained formerly 30,000 looms employed in weaving cotton cloth.

_Hastinapuri_, in the Samscred _Hastinanagari_, called by others very improperly _Assanapur_, or _Hassnapur_, and by D’Anville _Astanagar_. At present it is known by the name of _Hassanabad_, and is the first and oldest city in all India. It lies in the latitude of 32° and a few minutes. In the book _Bharada_ the following passage occurs respecting it:

_Hasti tàn nirmicion puramàyadu mùlam Hastinapuramennu ciollunit arignàlum._

That is: “King _Hasti_ built a city, and therefore it was called _Hastinapuri_, from king Hasti.” Its inhabitants, and in all probability some of its kings, were once subdued by the Assyrians: afterwards they fell under the dominion of Cyrus, to whom they were obliged to pay tribute. The celebrated Indian kings known by the names of _Pandu_, _Pando_, or _Pandavi_, resided thirteen months in the city of _Hastinapuri_. They lived 1550, and not 3102, years before the birth of Christ, as Mr. Wilkins erroneously asserts. It appears from my copy of the work called _Bharada_, written on palm leaves, that _Hastinapuri_ existed a long time before these _Pandos_ or _Pandavi_, and was built at least 2000 years before Christ, consequently must be of the same antiquity as the Assyrian monarchy. The consort of king Hasti was named _Ashodara_, and was a daughter of king _Trigarta_. They had a son called _Vikugnen_, who married _Sumanda_ a daughter of king _Dashahanda_[28].

The city _Dionysiopolis_, mentioned by Ptolemy and Arrian[29], is _Nisa_, the city of _Devanishi_, that is of Dionysius, or the Indian Bacchus. In the Samscred language it is called _Shrinagari_, which signifies the city of the celebrated, the fortunate, or the blessed Bacchus[30]. It is called also _Nishadabury_ or _Naishadabur_, that is, the city _Nisa_. It lies in the latitude of 31°, on the river _Allakandara_, which discharges itself into the Ganges. According to the assertion of St. Jerome, it was built by Bacchus 550 years after the birth of Abraham. _Pallibothra_ was likewise built by Bacchus. That city, however, is neither the present _Patna_ on the Ganges, as Major Rennel pretends, nor _Eleabad_, or _Allahabad_, which lies also on the Ganges, in the latitude of 25 degrees and some minutes; but _Pallipatur_, now a small town on the river _Yamunà_, at its influx into the Ganges, in the latitude of 26°. Robertson and D’Anville, who assert that _Pallibothra_ is the present _Eleabad_, or _Allahabad_, deserve no credit; because these appellations are of Persian and not of Indian extraction[31].

_Benares_, _Venares_, or _Kasi_, a celebrated temple, together with an academy and an observatory, is situated on the Ganges, in the latitude of 25°, and is the _Cassidia_ of the ancients[32].

_Ayodhya_, an ancient Indian city, where the first Indian monarchs on the Ganges resided, was situated on the river _Deva_, in the latitude of 25°, exactly in the spot where _Faizabad_ now stands. It was the birth-place of _Shiràna_, or _Rama_, an Indian hero, or the younger Bacchus, whose heroic achievements were celebrated in songs before the times of the Pagan Indians.

_Modhura_, or _Moturapuri_, called by Pliny _Modura Deorum_, is also a very ancient city, lying between _Agra_ and _Delhi_, in the latitude of 27°. It is the birth-place of the god _Krishna_, or the Indian Apollo, who here tended his herds. For this reason it is called likewise _Gocula_ and _Ambàdi_, that is, the circuit of the cows. It is situated on the river _Yamuna_, for which the Pagans have the utmost veneration.

_Eloura_ or _Illoura_, properly _Ellur_, the city of sesamum, is at present a town called _Douletabad_. It lies four Indian miles to the north-west of _Aurungabad_. There is here a very ancient and celebrated temple, a description of which has been given by Thevenot.

_Canudi_, and not _Canouge_, as Renaudot writes, is an ancient city, the residence of the first Indian kings. The five brothers _Pandu_, or _Pando_, who make so great a figure in the ancient history of India, kept here their court. It lies in the latitude of 27°, on the river _Càlini_, at the place where it discharges itself into the Ganges.

_Patna_, a celebrated city on the Ganges, is placed in Father Tiefenthaler’s map under the latitude of 25°. It contains a million and a half of inhabitants, according to the assertion of Father Marcus a Tumba, who has written a description of it. The English have here a council and government, who are, however, subordinate to the supreme council at Calcutta.

A more minute account of Indian cities and places may be found in Tiefenthaler’s description of Hindostan, Anquetil du Perron’s Historical and Geographical Researches, Rennel’s Memoir, and a very important manuscript of Father Marcus a Tumba, preserved in the Borgian museum at Velitri, and entitled _Su i luoghi santi dell’ India_. My object was merely to mention some places in the southern part of India, which have been passed over in silence by the above writers.

According to the assertion of the before mentioned Capuchin, Father Marcus a Tumba, who resided a long time as missionary at _Patna_ and _Tschandranagar_, the _Chandernagor_ of the French, the flux and reflux of the sea extend, by means of the Ganges, more than sixty leagues into the country, so that ships of war can proceed that far up the river. On the _Dèva_ or _Sarayuva_ vessels can go even to Delhi, and on the river _Son_ to _Rotasgar_. The English possess, on the Ganges, the cities of _Calcutta_, _Monguiri_, _Patna_, _Benares_, and _Allahabad_ or _Eleabad_, and have at all these places factories, fortresses, governors, and collectors of the public revenues. The province of Bengal alone brings them an annual income of above three millions sterling. It appears from a letter of Mr. Hastings, formerly governor-general of Bengal, that the English ships which sailed from that settlement between the 1st of December 1782, and the 1st of January 1784, had on board goods to the value of two _cores_ (or _codi_) and sixty-five lack of rupees[33]. A rupee is equal in value to five Roman _paoli_; a hundred thousand rupees make one lack; and a hundred _lac_, a _core_ or _codi_. This immense sum was exported too at a time when the English were involved in a war with the Indian princes; but to how much will their exports at last amount in times of war?--Their great revenues will and must infallibly decrease hereafter; for, in the first place, the natives are too much oppressed: 2dly, In a state of continual warfare and plundering, agriculture is neglected: 3dly, Trade and manufactures decline: 4thly, The country is ruined by monopolies: 5thly, An immense quantity of specie has been drawn from it of late years; and at present much fewer rupees and pagodas are seen in circulation than formerly[34].

Those who wish to form a clear idea of the degraded condition of the greater part of the Indian kings and princes in the southern and northern part of India, must recur to the hostile invasions by which foreign conquerors reduced those countries under their dominion. In the year 1202 the Tartar _Gingsa Khan_, or _Gengis Khan_, made an incursion into the kingdom of _Tangut_, and in 1209 into India. He was followed in 1409, two centuries later, by _Timur_ _Bec_, or Tamerlan, when he had crushed the dynasty of the Moguls, which afterwards was divided into two branches, the eastern and the western. Timur established himself in the neighbourhood of _Agra_; expelled, as far as his power extended, the legal Indian kings and princes; and committed the care of the provinces he had subdued to nabobs and governors of his own appointment. This was the first time that the Mogul Tartars took possession of India. Some writers assert, that _Gengis Khan_ did not enter India till the year 1218, and that the conquest of that country by Timur falls about the year 1398. However this may be, _Mir Shah_, called by some _Mirzan Pir Mohamed_, kept possession of the northern part of India for several years, and composed for his subjects a new code of laws according to the political system of the Moguls. The next conqueror of India was _Abu Said Shemor Ami Shah_, who reigned in 1493. During the persecution which Timur permitted against the Indians, the Gypsies, who belonged originally to the caste of the _Pareas_, a people residing on the _Sindhu_, or Indus, fled from their native country, wandered through Scythia, and, proceeding thence to Hungary, dispersed themselves over various parts of Europe[35]. In the year 1519, or, according to some, 1526, the celebrated conqueror _Bahur_, a descendant of Timur, extended the Mogul empire in India; or was rather, as some assert, the real founder of it. He had four sons, _Homaon_ or _Omayoun_, _Sehir Shah_, _Selim Shah_, and _Firuz Shah_, who reigned after him. In the year 1550, or 1556, _Akbar_ the wise, a son of _Homaon_, rebuilt the city of Agra, introduced new laws, and appointed new nabobs or viceroys in the provinces. He caused various Indian books to be translated also into the Persian language; and among these were the work called _Mahabhàrada_, and another named _Ayin Akberi_. The latter was a book of Indian laws, which had been collected by his minister _Albufazel_. _Akbar_ died in 1605, and was succeeded by _Gehanguir_. The latter had five sons, one of whom swayed the sceptre of the kingdom of _Dàkshima_ or _Decan_, which he had subdued by force. In 1627 _Gehanguir_ was followed by _Shah Gehan_, who also left behind him five sons. According to some, however, a prince named _Bolasci_ reigned a considerable time before him. _Akbar_ restored to the Brahmans their observatory at Benares, in order that they might continue their astronomical observations, which had been long interrupted by the war. _Gehanguir_, on the other hand, had no taste for the sciences, and could not prevail upon himself to tread in the footsteps of his father: both he and _Shah Gehan_ were rather formed for war. These Moguls made an incursion, for the first time, into the kingdom of _Carnate_, or more properly _Carnada_, in 1632 or 1633; and they thence over-ran the southern part of India, into which no foreign conqueror had ever before penetrated. _Shah Gehan_ transferred the seat of government from _Agra_ to _Delhi_. The dominion of the Moguls was still farther extended under the reign of _Aurengzeb_, one of the sons of _Shah Gehan_. This prince conquered, in 1686, the kingdoms of _Velur_, _Visapur_, and _Goloonda_; in 1695, subdued _Carnada_ a second time; and, in 1698, made himself master of the provinces of _Gingi_, _Satara_, and _Panin_. Major Rennel says, that the revenue of this monarch amounted annually to thirty-five millions sterling. He died in 1707, and left four sons, one of whom, _Shah Alem_, assumed the reins of government the same year. The latter had two sons, who reigned till the year 1739. Their successor _Shah Mohamed_ was dethroned by _Thamas Kuli Khan_, who plundered the treasury, levied exorbitant contributions from the people, and carried off an immense booty. _Thamas Kuli Khan_, or _Nadir Shah_, was followed in 1748 by _Achmet Shah_, a son of _Mohamed Shah_. After this the throne of Delhi was possessed from 1756 to 1760 by _Azizeddoulah_ or _Alemguirsani_, king of the Patans. Under the government of this prince almost all the nabobs refused obedience to his lawful commands. The districts over which they presided as viceroys being of considerable extent, and at a great distance from Delhi, it was therefore much easier for them to render themselves totally independent. His son was deprived of the throne by his own prime minister; and bloody feuds ensued, which continued, without interruption, till the year 1773. As it was far more advantageous, in every case, to have to contend with several weak and petty princes, than so formidable and powerful a monarch, the English, during this state of warfare, considered it as of great importance to support the rebellious nabobs against their supreme lord, in order that they might establish themselves more firmly in the possession of their colonies, and at the same time have allies in case of need. After this period the power of the Great Mogul sunk into nothing. The policy by which the English, as well as the _Subadars_, or Mogul governors, effected this change, may be found circumstantially described in Pallebot de St. Lubin’s Historical Memoirs, under the head Revolutions of Bengal. The _Seiks_, whom I consider as a people originally Christians, but who again adopted the Pagan religion, taking up arms, now entered in a hostile manner into _Lahor_, _Multan_, _Delhi_, and other possessions of the Great Mogul; while the English, in another quarter, combining their own private interest with that of the rebellious nabobs or viceroys, made themselves masters of several provinces also: and thus this mighty empire, notwithstanding its greatness, its monstrous extent, and its riches, sunk back into its former insignificance. After this period nothing but war and contention prevailed in _Carnate_, _Tanjaur_, _Gingi_, _Madura_, and _Maissur_, and in all the provinces, of which I shall soon give a more particular account.

The first province on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, which begins in the south-west, and extends towards the north-east, is _Marava_, the capital of which, having the same name, is situated, according to M. De la Tour, in the latitude of 9° 35′ north; as appears by the map which he published at Paris, in 1770, under the title of _Theatre de la Guerre dans l’Inde_. This map, which was constructed with great accuracy on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, exhibits with much clearness and precision the different districts, cities, and rivers in the theatre of the war carried on by the English, French and Indians against each other, as well as the boundaries of these districts, and the principal roads through them. It was constructed by order of the French government for the trial of Count Lally, who had been governor of _Puduceri_. I consider it as much more correct than the map of the Brahmans, which Anquetil du Perron has inserted under the title of _Portion d’une Carte du Sud de la presqu’Isle de l’Inde, faite par des Brahmes_, in the first part of his _Récherches Historiques et Geographiques sur l’Inde_, published at Berlin in 1786. The Brahmans were unprovided with good astronomical instruments, and consequently not in a condition to construct an accurate map.

The province of _Marava_ is bounded on the east and south by the sea, on the north by _Tanjaur_, and on the west by _Madura_. It is intersected by the _Veyarru_, that is, the great river, which flows down from the _Gauts_, divides the kingdom of _Madura_ or _Pandi_ into two parts, and, running past the ancient city of _Madura_, spreads itself through the province of _Marava_ into several branches. By means of this river vessels can be navigated to the sea through both the before-mentioned provinces, in a direction from west to east; but it is exceedingly difficult and laborious to return. While the flood, called by the Indians _Velli_, continues, there is no impediment, as it each time drives the vessel three or four miles up the country; but when it is over, the troublesome part of the navigation commences, because the sailors must then row against the stream with all their strength. The case is the same, in general, on the coasts of _Ciòlamandala_ and _Malabar_, with all the rivers which flow down from the _Gauts_, and which for the most part have their sources in that ridge of mountains. But with whatever difficulties this return may be attended, the advantages procured by these rivers to the inhabitants of the surrounding districts are of the utmost importance. They facilitate inland as well as foreign trade, render the soil fruitful, purify and cool the air; in a word, it is to be ascribed to them alone that the country is habitable by human beings; which certainly would have been impossible, had not Providence placed in this part of the torrid zone that immense ridge, and supplied it so abundantly with water.

The principal cities in the province of _Marava_ are: _Elluvancotta_, _Ciangucotta_, _Tiruvananganur_, _Ciòlaburam_, _Kavaricotta_, and _Ràmanàthapuram_, of which I have already spoken. The country is covered with forests, underwood, and shrubs. The inhabitants are rude and uncultivated. The men, though of low stature, are strongly built and excellent warriors. I saw several of them, who had behaved with great gallantry in the war which _Rama Varmer_, the king of _Travancor_, carried on against the nabob _Tippoo Sultan Babader_. Each wore around his head a turban of blue cotton cloth; had a white jacket which descended to his thighs, a sabre by his side; in his right hand a lance, and in his left a shield. These people march, however, in bodies without any certain order, and perform their evolutions by the sound of a horn. They let their beards grow; have coarse hands and faces; go bare-footed; and wear a blue girdle around the body. They are much braver than the _Tamulians_, who can never be accustomed to the fatigues of a military life.

_Marava_ was formerly a province of the kingdom of _Madura_. The ruler of it was called _Nyaquen_, that is, the lord; but the Europeans have corrupted this word, and made of it _Naik_ or _Naiken_. The northern part of _Marava_ is at present under the dominion of the nabob Mohamed Aly and his friends the English; but the western is subject to the king of _Travancor_, who possesses also a part of _Madura_ and _Marava_ on the east, from Cape _Comari_, in consequence of a treaty which he entered into with the English and Mohamed Aly. This king of Travancor, however, is obliged to pay the _Coppa_, that is, a yearly tribute, to Mohamed Aly, who may be called a creature of the English, and whom they generally employ as a state engine when they wish to exercise their oppression against the Indian princes. The Jesuits formerly had a great many Christian congregations in _Marava_, and this missionary establishment was connected with those in _Tanjaur_ and _Madura_; but, in my time, these congregations had for the most part dropped off; and the few still remaining were under the direction of priests from _Goa_, who did not bestow too much attention upon them. The interior parts of _Madura_ and _Marava_, in matters of spiritual judicature, are subject to the archbishop of _Cudnegalur_ or _Craugalor_; and places on the sea-coast, which do not extend farther than ten miles into the country, belong to the diocese of the bishop of _Cochin_.

_Tanjaur_ lies between the tenth and eleventh degree of latitude, and 25 seconds farther towards the north east. This kingdom is bounded on the south by the sea and the province of _Marava_, not far from the fortress of _Tiruvananganur_, which belongs to _Marava_. On the east it is washed also by the sea, and towards the north by the rivers _Cavèri_ and _Colàrru_, the latter of which is very improperly written _Colram_. In the Samscred language it signifies the river of the wild hogs; from _Cola_ a wild hog, and _Arru_ a river; for these animals were formerly found there in great abundance. Both these rivers, the _Cavèri_ and _Colàrru_, are exceedingly large, and are held in as great veneration by the eastern Indians as the Ganges is by the northern. Those who belong to the sect of the _Vishnuvites_, address their prayers to _Vishnu_ as the ruler of the waters; and they believe that he created the universe from water: for this reason they perform their lustrations at rivers, and on their return carry with them some bits of yellow earth, which they pick up on the banks. When an individual of this sect dies, his body is burnt, and the ashes are thrown into one of these rivers. From this it appears that the Indians show divine honours to the elements after the manner of the ancient Persians.

_Tanjaur_, the capital of the province, is situated in 10° 35′ north latitude, between the two arms of the river _Cavèri_. The most considerable cities next to this are: _Vallam_, _Màdèvipatnam_, or the city of the great goddess _Lakshmi_, _Patucòtta_, _Tiruvalur_, and _Tirumannur_. Beyond the boundaries of _Tanjaur_, towards the west, on the left bank of the _Cavèri_, and in the latitude of 10° 45′, lies the celebrated city of _Tricinapalli_, where at present the English have their seat of government, and the principal part of their forces. They made choice of it for the capital of the province, and their chief magazine of arms, because they can thence keep in subjection, with the greatest ease, the two kingdoms of _Tanjaur_ and _Madura_; overawe the deposed kings and princes; collect the public revenue, the rice crops, and the taxes, without much trouble; and can be always ready to march with their troops, at a minute’s warning, to any quarter wherever symptoms of insurrection may appear. On the sea-coast, towards the east, in the kingdom of _Tanjaur_, lies the temple _Collamedu_; and the city of _Negapatnam_, which belongs to the English, and is strongly fortified; also the city of _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_; _Naur_, particularly celebrated on account of its cotton manufactures; the city and fortress of _Karinkalla_, which once belonged to the French; _Cialenbron_, an ancient Pagan temple; and _Divyacotta_, which was formerly an excellent castle. The river _Cavèri_ divides itself into several arms or channels: one of these, which branches off not far from _Cirangam_, is distinguished by the name of _Colàrru_. It is much larger and broader than even the _Cavèri_ itself. The latter flows towards the east, but the former pursues its course towards the north; and both discharge themselves into the sea through several mouths. It is to be ascribed chiefly to these two rivers that the kingdom of _Tanjaur_ produces such an abundance of rice. It grows there in so great quantities, that this land may with propriety be called the granary of all _Ciòlamandala_. Most foreigners endeavour to establish themselves in this province, or at least to carry on trade with it. In the year 1619 the king of Tanjaur, _Raghu-nathe-nayaguen_, gave up the city of _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_, to the Danes, who immediately formed there a celebrated missionary establishment for propagating the Lutheran religion. In 1638 the French obtained from _Sovadsadiragia_, another king of Tanjaur, the city and harbour of _Carinkalla_, which they name _Carikal_. In 1658 the Dutch and the Portuguese made themselves masters of the city of _Nagapatnam_, and in 1783 it was taken from the Dutch by the English, and never again restored. It is of the utmost importance to the latter, since they have had possession of the kingdom of _Tanjaur_. Before they added this country to their Indian possessions, they employed every method possible, by their creature and ally the nabob of _Arcate_, _Mohamed Aly_, to get it into their hands; but when they at length obtained it, the injustice of the measure appeared so glaring, that the Court of London protested against the violent proceedings of the government of _Madraspatnam_, and sent out Lord Pigot to India, with orders to restore the kingdom to the Maratta prince, its lawful owner. Lord Pigot, in my time, was kept in a state of arrest at _Mont Grand_, not far from _Maïlapuri_. The merchants of _Madraspatnam_, who derived immense advantages from the kingdom of Tanjaur, opposed the disposition made by the British Court for restoring it; and General Stuart, whom the adherents of Mr. Stratton and the merchants had brought over to their party, enticed Lord Pigot to take an airing in his carriage; had him arrested on the road, and conveyed to the before-mentioned fortress _Mont Grand_, which lies at the distance of a few miles towards the west from Madraspatnam. Here he remained for a considerable time in confinement, till he at length died in 1777. _Tullasuragia_, king of _Tanjaur_, who, by the command and exertions of Lord Pigot, was restored to the throne, experienced a similar fate. He was put in confinement also by the assistance of Mohamed Aly, and died in prison in 1776. Such is the manner in which kingdoms and provinces are acquired in India! The Europeans first get a footing there as merchants; imperceptibly endeavour to extend their power; are no longer satisfied with the advantages of trade, and begin gradually to oppose their own private interest to the interest of those princes who have admitted them into their dominions. In a little time they find means to involve them in a war; sometimes they give them assistance, in order that they may afterwards make them pay for it; and sometimes they incite one prince against another, or endeavour to create confusion in their political relations: in a word, they never rest until they get possession of the land which is the object of their ambition. _Timur-Bec_, _Thamas Kuli Khan_, the _Moguls_ and _Marattas_, the _English_ and _French_, all pretended to have just reasons for seizing the possessions of others; and no man was able to refute these reasons, which, while they had arms in their hands, were rendered sufficiently valid. “The right of conquest,” says Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, “is a necessary, lawful, but unhappy power, which leaves the conqueror under a heavy obligation of repairing the injuries done to humanity[36].”

It has been already said, that in former times the kingdom of _Tanjaur_ was dependent on that of _Madura_. The princes who were subordinate, and obliged to pay tribute to that of the latter, were called _Nayaga_, that is, lords; and not _Rajah_, or kings. In the ancient classical writers they are seldom mentioned, and at later periods all intercourse between Europe and India was interrupted by the incursion of the barbarians, so that scarcely any traces of them are to be found. The relation of the two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, a translation of which has been given by Renaudot, is exceedingly dry and barren; for these travellers speak only of such princes in India as received them with friendship, and of places where they were kindly entertained by their countrymen the Arabs. The most authentic information now extant, respecting the kingdom of _Tanjaur_ and its sovereigns, has been collected by Anquetil du Perron in the first part of his _Recherques historiques_, &c. often already mentioned, under the following head: _Suite chronologique des rois Marates du Tanjour commençant à Ekogi (Egavàgi), l’an 1471 de l’ere Chretienne jusqu’a Toullason Rajah en 1783; accompagnée de détails sur les principaux rois de la presqu’ile de l’Inde depuis la fin du 15 siecle_. In the year 1360 _Tanjaur_ was under the government of king _Prabudhadeven_, which signifies the attentive, careful god; from _Prabudha_, attentive, careful; and _Deven_, a god. People who were ignorant of the Indian languages corrupted this word, and made of it _Parabudeideven_. After him, an officer of the king of _Bisnagari_, or _Narasinha_, called the Emperor of the Coast of Coromandel, was raised to that dignity. This kingdom fell afterwards into the power of some Maratta princes, who retained it till the year 1773, when the nabob of Arcate, _Mohamed Aly_, an Arabian prince, was forcibly put in possession of it by the English, in whose hands it remains at this day[37].

Some of the missionaries, such as, Father de Magistris, Frederick Schwarz a Dane[38], and Father Johannes de Brito, whose manuscript works, never yet published, I have now in my hands, complain bitterly of the oppression which the subjects of the Pagan kings had to endure. M. Anquetil du Perron endeavours to defend the latter, and to prove that private persons enjoyed real and individual property, among which he reckons gardens and meadows. I can, however, establish, by historical documents, that this assertion is altogether false, and that Anquetil was totally unacquainted with the ancient Indian laws. The kings either let their rice fields to the farmers called _Vayshya_, or gave up the use of them to their soldiers for military service. It is very certain that a great many abuses were connected with the regal authority; and, in my opinion, this was the principal cause why the kings of _Madura_, _Maïssur_, _Tanjaur_ and _Marava_ came at last to destruction. Their subjects were, indeed, divided into nobles, patricians and plebeians; but these three ranks were always at variance, and the people groaned under the severest oppression. It was very customary for one, under the pretence of avenging some injury he had sustained, to fall upon the property of another and to carry it off. The monarchs were at great pains to keep up these feuds, and they seldom suffered the offended party to receive justice. Continual jealousy prevailed between these petty tyrants; military discipline was totally neglected, and nothing was encouraged at court but luxury and flattery. Under these circumstances, it needs excite no wonder that the people received foreigners bent upon conquest with open arms; and that these kings, after a dominion of two thousand years, brought themselves at last to ruin, as must be the case with all those who suffer such abuses in their government. The revolution which happened in these kingdoms, when the English interfered in the affairs of India, might perhaps have been of some use, had not that nation, as avaricious as it is industrious, carried away all the productions and other riches of the country. It is thus that the nations of the earth are punished, when they abandon themselves so completely to vice that they shut their eyes against the light of reason, and in their blindness stray from the paths of justice and virtue.

At _Navur_ great quantities of cotton articles, _Tapissendis_[39], and cloth of all colours are manufactured. The blue cotton stuffs of _Nagapatnam_ and _Torangapuri_ are sent throughout all _Tanjaur_, _Madura_ and _Malabar_. _Nagapatnam_ is the place where the spiritual jurisdiction of the bishop of _Cochin_ ends, and that of the bishop of _Maïlapuri_ commences. The latter extends not only over the whole coast of _Ciòlomandala_, but over that also of _Orixa_, and throughout all _Bengal_, where the above-mentioned bishop has a vicar-general. The Jesuits formerly were in possession of a great many Christian churches in _Tanjaur_, and the missionary establishment there depended on that of _Madura_, which was founded by Father Robert Nobili, a native of the Papal territories. At present an ex-jesuit resides at _Tricinnapalli_.

The kingdom of _Madura_ begins, in the south, under about 8° 10′ N. lat. near the sea, and extends thence, towards the north, between the _Gauts_, which lie on the west, and between _Madura_ and _Tanjaur_, the latter of which lies on the east and ends in the north at the rivers _Cavèri_ and _Veyàrru_, in 11° 15′ N. lat. These rivers intersect the whole country. The _Veyàrru_, or great river, is, on Anquetil’s map, named by the Brahmans _Madura_. It directs its course from west to east, and flows past the ancient city of _Madura_, which is the capital of the kingdom, and from which the whole province derives its name. The _Cavèri_ descends also from the Gauts, and, running past _Tricinapalli_, _Ceringham_, and various other cities, discharges itself through several mouths into the sea. This tract of land lies much higher than the rest, and therefore it produces much less rice; but for that reason it abounds more with cotton, cummin, garlic, ginger, gum-lac and capers. There are found here also a great many bezoar goats, civet cats, wild hogs, deer, antelopes, tygers, apes, and elephants. In some of the valleys there grow likewise considerable quantities of very white rice, the grains of which are small, and which has an excellent aromatic taste. The inhabitants of this province, like all mountaineers, are large, robust people, and capable of bearing the heaviest burthens on their head and shoulders. They carry on a considerable trade with the maritime cities on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, and since the earliest periods have been accustomed to cross the _Gauts_, mountains of tremendous height; so that they even transport their cotton stuffs to the coast of Malabar, and either sell them in some of the towns and villages lying at the bottom of these mountains, or exchange them for salt, dried fish, areca nuts, pepper, copper, iron, and other articles in which the kingdom of Madura is deficient. Necessity is the oldest and first instructor which mankind had in regard to commerce; avarice, luxury, and the thirst of gain afterwards associated themselves with her, and still follow in her train. Among the trading cities, at the foot of the Gauts, on the Malabar coast, is _Arampalli_, the _Arguropolis_ of the ancient Greeks, which lies nine miles up the country from Cape _Comari_, and as much from _Covalam_. Formerly there were in this city above two thousand looms employed in weaving cotton stuffs. Even at present it is a place of some importance in regard to its cotton trade; but formerly it was, as it were, the mart or general magazine to which the inhabitants of the Malabar coast and the province of Madura carried all their merchandize. Since navigation increased, many of the manufacturers have removed from this as well as from other cities, and formed new settlements and places of trade at a distance from those harbours which are frequented by foreign ships. The other Malabar cities, which still keep up their former connection and trade with _Madura_, are: _Cottàte_, _Càgnarapalli_, _Iratugè_, _Pugnàda_, _Mohatugè_, and _Codamangalam_. The cities in the interior part of the kingdom of _Madura_, which formerly sent and still send merchandize to the Malabar coast, are: _Cambam_, _Uttamapàliam_, _Periaculam_, _Sindacalla_, _Badagare_, _Tuvàrencurici_, _Veluvàracotta_, _Andipatti_, _Tevàram_, _Ciundrapandi_, _Cettur_, _Shivagari_, _Tirunaveli_, _Cencotta_, _Condùr_, _Tèdanàda_, _Perumanel_, _Ceruvatti_, _Caricàttur_, and _Manimàla_. Notwithstanding the great number of missionaries and European geographers who have written on this country, not one of them has so much as mentioned the names of these cities, or given any account of the connection which subsists between the two coasts of the peninsula of India. All of them confine themselves rather to a general view, and speak only of the possessions of the Europeans. I can, however, with truth assert, that I have seen whole companies of these merchants from _Madura_, partly at _Codamangalam_ at the bottom of the Gauts, and partly at _Mohatuge_ and _Padmanaburam_. They are accustomed to transport their merchandize upon oxen, which are loaded with cotton goods of every kind. These merchants are almost all well armed, because they are obliged to pursue their way through narrow passes in the mountains, which, on account of the numerous tygers found in them, are exceedingly dangerous. From the before-mentioned cities, in the interior part of Malabar, merchandize is transported to those on the coast both by land and by water. They are sent to _Covalam_ at Cape _Comari_, _Coleci_, _Tiruvancòda_, _Collam_, _Porrocàda_, _Muttam_, _Cocci_, _Cudungalùr_, _Colicòtta_, _Cannanùr_, _Valiapatnam_ and _Calianapuri_, and thence conveyed on board foreign ships. Some of these cities were celebrated in ancient times. Thus, for example, _Arampalli_ was by the Greeks called _Arguropolis_; and _Covalam_, _Colis_ or _Colias_; _Coleci_, in Strabo, is named _Cojaci_; and _Cottàte_ occurs, in Ptolemy, under the name of _Cottiara Metropolis_, and in Pliny under that of _Cottona_. Neither the Egyptians, whose vessels consisted merely of papyrus, nor the Greeks and the Romans, who were not very expert in the art of navigation, and whose ships were built in an exceeding slight manner, ever ventured to double Cape _Comari_, where such violent storms sometimes prevail, that the Portuguese called it _The Little Cape of Good Hope_. The mariners of these nations ran their vessels, therefore, either into the small harbours of _Covalam_ or _Coleci_, where the sea forms a bay or haven, in which ships of a moderate size can lie at anchor in perfect security. It was necessary that every article of merchandize from Bengal and Pegu, the island of Ceylon, the coast of _Coromandel_, _Tanjaur_, and _Madura_, should be sent to both these places, which was done more frequently by Land than by water. A part of them were then transported up the Red Sea to Alexandria; the rest were conveyed through the Persian gulph to the Tigris and the Euphrates, and thence they made their way to Greece and Rome; as has been very justly remarked by Strabo, Pliny, Arrian, Marco Polo, Schmidt, Montesquieu, and lately by the celebrated Robertson.

The kingdom of _Madura_ or _Pandi_, said to have been founded by one of the five brothers _Pandu_ or _Pandava_, A. M. 1550, was always governed by its own lawful sovereigns, natives of the country. _Porus_, or _Puru_, sat upon the throne in the time of Octavius Augustus. King _Cerambotti_, who is mentioned by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, under the names of _Cuprobottes_, _Celebothras_, or _Cerobothron_, was descended from this family; and his government extended both over _Malabar_ and the kingdom of _Canara_. The kings of _Travancor_, who about sixty years ago were very obscure princes, had their origin also in _Madura_. The kings of _Madura_ kept their court in the city of the same name, and their vassals shewed them a veneration almost without bounds. After the death of _Virabhanàyaguen_, no fewer than three hundred of his wives ascended the funeral pile, and voluntarily suffered their bodies to be burnt with that of the king. In the year 1740 the Marattas made an incursion into _Madura_, and since that period the dominion of the national kings has been at an end. After the Marattas _Nisam al Malek_ penetrated into the country, and at last came _Mohamed Aly Khan_, in the year 1742. The latter caused the viceroy of _Madura_, named _Khan Saheb_, to be put to death; took possession of the throne; entered into an alliance with the English at _Madraspatnam_, and divided the kingdom of _Madura_ between himself and his allies. The English then converted the city of _Tricinapalli_ into a place of arms; beset the high ways with guards, and got into their hands the whole trade. By these means the ancient _Madura_ fell totally into ruin. The English have also another army at _Tirunaveli_[40], a city lying to the south of _Madura_. This place is separated from _Paliamcotta_ only by a river, which serves as a boundary between the English and the king of _Travancor_. _Paliamcotta_, a strong fortress, is situated on the southern bank of that river, and belongs to the king of _Travancor_, who is also in alliance with the English. When the English are desirous of procuring money from this prince, they instigate their ally _Mohamed Aly Khan_ to send an army against _Tovala_, in the neighbourhood of Cape _Comari_; and if the king of _Travancor_ wishes to prevent this disagreeable visit, he must pay to the English whatever they choose to demand. When I was at the court of this prince, in 1784, the army of _Mohamed Aly Khan_ required him either to send them a certain sum, or to give them permission to march through _Tovala_, in order that they might obtain money from _Travancor_. _Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla_, however, a man of talents, who was then prime minister, settled the whole business by paying to the English 200,000 rupees[41].

The kingdom of _Carnada_, from the year 1754 to 1762, was the continual theatre of the war carried on against each other by the English and French, _Hayder Aly Khan_, the father of _Tippoo Sultan_, and the nabob of _Arrucate_. It is bounded on the west by that ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_; and lies between the 12th and 14th degree of north latitude, and the 77th and 78th of east longitude. Towards the south it is bounded by _Tanjaur_, or the river _Vellaru_, which flows down from the mountains in _Maïssur_ on the west, intersects _Carnada_, and throws itself into the eastern sea at the extremity of the kingdom near _Puorto Novo_. _Golconda_ forms its boundary on the north, in the latitude of 15°. _Carnada_ is the kingdom so much extolled by ancient travellers under the name of _Narasinha_. It is watered by three rivers, the first of which, called the _Paler_, runs past the cities of _Velur_, _Arrucate_, _Cangipuri_ and _Sadras_. It is extremely broad at the last-mentioned place, and discharges itself into the eastern sea. The second, named the _Ciovanàrru_, falls into the sea on the south of _Puduceri_, after having united, not far from that city, with the _Gingi_, which flows down from the mountains of the same name. The third is called the _Ponarru_, or the golden river. It has its source in the Gauts, not far from _Dhermapuri_ in _Maïssur_, runs past _Tricolur_, and on the north of _Gudelùr_ throws itself into the sea. The interior part of this country produces abundance of rice, though not in such quantity as _Tanjaur_. Numerous herds of cattle are also seen in it; and, according to the assertion of the Indians, it contains mines of gold and silver. The cotton articles manufactured here are exceedingly fine. The maritime cities of _Carnada_ are, _Gudelùr_, _Puduceri_, _Cangimaram_, _Sadras_, _Maïlapuri_, _Madraspatnam_, and _Valiacada_ or _Paliacate_. Various kinds of cotton stuffs, both coloured and white, are manufactured to a considerable extent in all these cities. _Gingi_, the capital of a small province, and _Arrucate_, are two pretty strong fortresses in the interior part of the country, and at the same time cities of great antiquity. According to Ptolemy, _Brahmanes Magi_ resided formerly at _Cangipuri_ in the kingdom of _Carnada_, and therefore it is beyond all doubt that in the first century of the Christian æra there were magi in India as well as in Persia. In the remotest periods there was a temple at _Cangipuri_, which is still frequented by a great number of pilgrims. It is dedicated to _Vishnu_, who, according to the doctrine of the Indians, first created water, and from water the whole universe. The image of this deity, who is here represented with four hands, is carried round in triumph, on certain days, in a very high carriage drawn by sixty persons. In his first hand he holds the sacred wheel; in the second, a huntsman’s horn; in the third, a diamond; and in the fourth a club, in order to combat the giants. A festival is still held here in honour of Fire, which has been already described by Sonnerat in the second part of his Voyage to India. _Tirunamala_, _Tirupadi_, _Tiruvalur_, _Cirangam_, and _Cialembron_, are also very beautiful pagodas or Pagan temples, which are not unworthy of a particular description. Some of these occupy a large square, surrounded by four lofty walls. In the middle of each wall stands a very high sharp-pointed tower, ornamented with the figures of various animals, which represent the different symbols of the deity. Under the tower is a gate, through which you enter the forecourt of the pagoda; and as there are commonly four towers on each wall, the most of these pagodas have also four gates. These towers, with their gates, are called _Gòburam_, which signifies both the tower and the gate of the fore-court of the temple. The before-mentioned symbols are in part offensive to decency. They allude to the creation and destruction of all created things, which are effected by the sun, moon, and the earth; and these are represented under the symbols of the three deities _Shiva_, _Parvadi_, and _Lakshmi_. The towers are square, and consist of several stories; some of which are large, but others very narrow. Each story is furnished with windows, and in the upper story a lamp is kept burning during the night. The temple itself stands in the middle of the court, and for the most part is of a conical form. These pagodas or Pagan temples, which in the Samscred language are called _Ksetra_, _Devassa_, or _Devalea_, consist of three divisions. The first forms the main body, or nave; the second, the sanctuary; and the third, the _Shrikoil_, that is, the chapel, in which the _Bimbam_ (statue) or the _Deven_ deity, or the _Punya Murti_, sacred body, is preserved. This chapel is constructed in the middle of the sanctuary, and has only one small window, so that in the inside it is exceedingly dark: a circumstance which not only increases the reverence and respect entertained for the divinity, but contributes also to conceal the functions of the _Eburandiri_, or high priest, who alone has the right of approaching the image. A great many lamps, filled with oil and butter, are kept burning around the chapel; and the offerings, which consist of rice, coco nuts, flowers, sesamum, pisangs, and other fruits, are deposited on a stool before the god, and left at the disposal of the priest. From the roof of the temple arises a long pole, to which is fastened, on days of solemnity, a large flag 70 feet in length. On this flag is represented an ox (the _Vahana_ or riding animal of the god _Shiva_) when the temple is dedicated to that deity; and in that case the ox or Apis is represented also in bas-relief above the small door of the chapel already described. There must always be a stream in the neighbourhood, in order that the Indians may wash themselves, and perform those ablutions which the service of the god requires. The sanctuary, for the most part, is surrounded by five or six rows of stone pillars, from eighteen to twenty feet in height, and ornamented with bas-reliefs of ingenious workmanship. In many temples the number of these columns amounts sometimes to sixty. It is astonishing how carefully the rules of architecture have been observed in constructing them: and as some of these temples are of very great antiquity, it consequently follows that this art must have flourished in India in the remotest periods.

The most considerable cities and fortresses in _Carnada_, the latter of which are almost always built in the form of a square, are: _Palancotta_, _Balancada_, _Atur_, _Calianatur_, _Shelon_, _Tatagari_, _Calicurici_, _Tirucolur_, _Tiruvanelur_, _Trividi_, _Tiruvamatur_, _Valdur_, _Villamur_, _Perumaculam_, _Vìcravandi_, _Tindivanam_, _Gingi_, _Tirumala_, _Penatur_, _Palur_, _Cettupeli_, _Vandavagi_, _Uttamatur_, _Tiruvatur_, _Harani_, _Timeri_, _Arcati_, _Caveripac_, _Tacaculam_, _Tirupassur_, and _Tirupadi_. One will scarcely find a country so pre-eminently distinguished by its architecture, and which can exhibit so great a number of elegant temples and other public buildings. It is therefore highly probable that the sovereigns of _Carnada_ were formerly in the most flourishing circumstances, and that population and industry were carried to their utmost extent; for, without the united effect of these causes, such magnificent monuments could never have been erected[42]. In the early periods this district was subject to the kings of _Bisnagari_ or _Narasinha_. It afterwards came under the dominion of the great Mogul, who caused it to be governed by a nabob or viceroy; but as one unjust possessor generally endeavours to expel another, the Marattas found means to make themselves masters of it in 1740. They were, however, again driven out by the nabob of _Arrucate_, a prince of Indian extraction, who had embraced the Mahometan religion. The French, at that time, espoused the cause of the great Mogul; but the English, who lived in a state of hostility with the Marattas, interested themselves for the nabob of _Arrucate_, who had rebelled against the great Mogul, and with whom they were besides in alliance. A bloody war ensued, during which the English and French, together with their different allies, fought more than fifteen battles in the kingdom of _Carnada_; and the contest was continued, with various success, till _Carnada_ at length came under the dominion of the nabob of _Arrucate_ and the English, the latter of whom are now in possession of _Puduceri_, the capital of the French colonies in India. They made a conquest of it since the commencement of the French revolution; and as the English at present have great power in India, this city is not likely to fall again into the hands of the French, unless it be restored on the conclusion of a peace.

The missionary establishment in _Carnada_, which was entrusted to French Jesuits, can boast of a great many celebrated men. It commences in the west at the mountains of _Maïssur_, which separate this province from _Carnada_; extends thence towards the east along the rivers _Vellaru_ and _Paler_, and comprehends the whole kingdom. The principal places where the Jesuits resided, were: _Puduceri_, _Gingi_, _Vencàttiguiri_, and _Arrucate_. The most considerable congregations, which they formed in the kingdom of _Madura_, were at _Madura_, _Tindacalla_, _Aur_, _Ilpiur_, _Puradacudi_, _Ayambel_, and _Conacupam_. In Tanjaur they had congregations of the like kind at _Varugapattì_, _Sirgani_, _Tanjaur_, _Suran_, _Camanaichenpatti_, and _Tirnaveli_. Monseigneur Dolicha, the apostolic vicar, resides sometimes at _Puduceri_, sometimes at _Ariancopan_, and belongs to the _Corps des Missions étrangeres_ at Paris. The Portuguese bishop at _Maïlapuri_ pretends to act as superintendant of all these congregations, which were formed neither by him, nor any other Portuguese; and though he is expressly forbidden by the Pope to exercise his spiritual jurisdiction in places which are not under the dominion of Portugal[43]. Since the destruction of the order of the Jesuits, many of these congregations have fallen into decline, because they were destitute of proper pastors. Some of them, however, still exist; and the bishop of _Maïlapuri_ furnishes them with priests, natives of India, sent from Goa to discharge the sacerdotal functions: but these men can never be so useful as Europeans, because they are not much respected by the heathens, and have too little learning to support the reputation of a Christian congregation, while surrounded by Pagans and Mahometans. In my time there were reckoned to be in _Madura_ eighteen thousand Christians; in _Carnada_, twenty thousand; and in _Tanjaur_, ten thousand: whereas the Danish missionaries at _Torangapuri_, or _Tranquebar_, with all their exertion could scarcely muster a thousand Lutheran Christians, as I was assured by several Catholics who resided at _Puduceri_[44]; and many even of this insignificant number abjured the Lutheran religion, as soon as they removed to any place beyond the boundaries of _Torangapuri_. The native Christians are fond of the images of the saints, processions, and in general the ceremonies and solemn festivals of the Catholic church; and, as the Protestants want all these things, it may be readily conceived that their simple religion can have very few attractions for the Indians[45].

* * * * *

This general account of the above countries, in which I resided three months, I must here conclude. It was necessary to be given, that the reader might be better enabled to understand the remaining part of my Travels.