CHAPTER II.

_Virapatnam--Seminary there--Error of Ptolemy the geographer-- Apis--Error of some modern geographers--Etymological catalogue of places in Carnada, Tanjaur and Madura._

M. Jallabert had given-me a particular account of a seminary at _Virapatnam_, in which young Indians who embraced the Christian religion were educated. As education is an object which deserves the particular attention of the traveller, we made a little excursion thither from _Puduceri_. _Vira_, in the Samscred language, signifies strong or courageous; and _Patna_, or _Patana_, a city. _Virapatnam_, therefore, signifies the _strong city_. This place, at present, is a small town situated at the distance of six miles from _Puduceri_, towards the south west, on the banks of a river, which takes its rise in the mountains on the east, and, flowing part _Virapatnam_, discharges itself into the sea on the south side of _Puduceri_. _Pudu_ in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, signifies new; _Puduna_, newness; _Ceri_, a town: _Puduceri_ therefore signifies the _new town_. From this etymology it is clear that _Puduceri_ cannot be a place of any antiquity; and it was indeed built by some emigrants from _Virapatnam_. When the Arabians first came to India, several cities lying on the sea coast arose in the like manner. It is therefore ridiculous when certain geographers, who endeavour to explain Ptolemy’s geography, consider cities first built in modern times to be the same as some of those mentioned in that author, though they must undoubtedly have been unknown to him, as they were not then in existence. It deserves also to be remarked, that Ptolemy, in giving the distances of places, generally errs from two to three degrees of latitude. The reason is, that the ancient travellers were accustomed to reckon the latitude according to the length or shortness of the day; and, consequently, to determine the distance of one place from another in the same manner. But as the day and night near the equator are almost always of equal length, it may readily be conceived, that the degree of latitude in which a place was situated could not be accurately ascertained in that manner; and that Ptolemy, and all those who depended upon him, must have fallen into errors[20]. The case has been nearly the same with M. D’Anville, as will be shewn hereafter.

The seminary of _Virapatnam_ was situated in a palm-garden; or, to speak more correctly, in a garden planted with coco-nut trees. It was founded by M. Mathon, a celebrated member of the so called _Missions étrangères_, who, at the time we were there, presided over it as rector. The building resembled a convent, but was much better divided; and so contrived, that these oriental seminarists did not find the least impediment, either in their study, their bodily exercise, or their other labours. Between three side apartments, where the three tutors lodged, was a large hall on the ground floor, in which were constructed two rows of small chambers all adjoining. They were separated from each other by thin wooden partitions, of only three or four palms in height; so that each of the students had an apartment to himself, and all of them could be observed by their teacher. The teacher sat at a desk, where he read his lessons; and, while employed in teaching, he could with one view see every thing that was doing in the different apartments. The pupils not only studied in these apartments, but also slept in them. A table, on which lay a mattress, supplied the place of a bed; and both above and beneath it another small table was suspended, which could be lowered or raised up at pleasure. If any of these young people wished to write, he had no occasion to leave his chamber, as he had nothing to do but to sit down at the foot of his bed; and when he wished to go out, he had only to remove his table and fold it up. On the other table above the bed were books, paper, pens and ink; his long seminary dress, and several small articles necessary for preserving cleanliness. The doors of the hall, which were exactly opposite to each other, stood always open to afford a free passage to fresh air; but no one could go out unperceived by the tutor, who in his apartment was continually observing every thing that passed. The refectory was situated in another part of the building; and it was customary to read in it during meals. The shops of the taylor, shoemaker, and carpenter, together with the printing-office and ovens for baking bread, were without, and all occupied by seminarists; for each of them was obliged to learn a trade. They all went bare-footed; and one of their employments was to water and look after the young palm-trees which were planted in the garden. Their time was so divided, that they studied daily four hours; devoted one hour to manual labour; and spent the remaining part in prayer, singing and meditation. On two days in the week they conversed in their mother tongue; but on other days they were obliged always to speak Latin. M. Mathon shewed me a bull of his present holiness Pope Pius VI. issued in favour of this seminary, and in which he bestowed great praises upon it. This institution was destined merely for young persons from China, Cochinchina, Tunquin, and Siam. It is much to be lamented that no establishment of the like kind is to be found here, for the natives of Malabar, and other parts of the peninsula of India, who are all formed to the ecclesiastical state in other countries, and return, for the most part, men of corrupted morals.

On the day of my return to _Puduceri_, I had an opportunity of seeing a very singular scene; as on that day the god Apis was led in procession through the city. This deity was a beautiful fat red-coloured ox, of a middle size. The Brahmans generally guard him the whole year through in the neighbourhood of his temple; but this was exactly the period at which he is exhibited to the people with a great many solemnities. He was preceded by a band of Indian musicians; that is to say, two drummers, a fifer, and several persons who with pieces of iron beat upon copper basons. Then came a few Brahmans, and behind these was an immense multitude of people. The Pagans had all opened the doors of their houses and shops, and before each stood a small basket with rice, thin cakes, herbs, and other articles in which the proprietors of these houses and shops used to deal. Every one beheld Apis with reverence; and those were considered fortunate of whose provisions he was pleased to taste a mouthful as he passed. Philarchus conjectured, as we are told by Plutarch in his treatise on Isis and Osiris, that Apis was originally brought from India to Egypt by the inhabitants of the latter. Plutarch himself asserts that the Egyptians considered Apis as an emblem of the soul of Osiris; and, perhaps, he here meant to say, that under this expression they understood that plastic power by which Osiris had produced and given life to every part of the creation. I shall, in another place, endeavour to prove, that Osiris was nothing else than the Sun, and consequently what among the Indians is represented by the idol _Shiva_, or _Mahadèva_. Hence it happens, that this _Shiva_, the emblem of the Sun, rides on an ox; and that in the solemn invocations of the Brahmans he is called _Pashupadi_, that is, _the man of the cow_. The cow again is nothing else than a symbol of the goddess _Ishami_, or the woman, as the Indians are accustomed to call the Isis to whom the cow is dedicated when they speak of her by her sacred name. On the Egyptian monuments Osiris, as the symbol of the Sun, is represented with rays around his head; and his wife Isis bears horns, the symbol of the cow, and also of the new moon, between which and the sun there is the same relation as between wife and husband. On the Indian monuments the idol _Shiva_ has an ox under him; and the goddess _Ishami_, as she is represented in one of the oldest Indian temples, is leaning with one of her arms on a cow[21]. Pliny in his Natural History, speaking of Apis, makes use of the following remarkable words: “When he eats out of the hand of those who come to consult him, it is considered as an answer. He refused to have any thing from the hand of Germanicus Cæsar, and the latter soon after died[22].” From this it appears that the Egyptians entertained the same opinions respecting Apis as the Indians. In Egypt, as well as India, people were accustomed to consider him as an oracle; to place food before him, and, according as he accepted or refused it, to form conclusions in regard to their good or bad fortune. Does not this evidently shew an analogy in the religious veneration which both these nations shewed to Apis? As the ox, or Apis, represents the plastic power of the sun, the cow, in the like manner, is a symbol of the plastic power of the moon and the earth. The ox, or Apis, is called in the Samscred _Uksha_, _Bhadra_, _Urszabha_, _Gau_, and _Mahisha_; but, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, _Kàla_, _Muri_, and _Cruda_. The cow in the Samscred is called _Mahey_, _Saurabhei_, _Gò_, _Usra_, _Mahà_, _Shranguini_; when she is red, _Argiuni_; when she is white, _Rohinni_: in the Malabar and Tamulic languages she is called _Pashu_, _Gova_. All these appellations express some of the properties of oxen and cows. Thus, for example, _Bhadra_ means good; _Mahisha_, great, magnanimous; _Mahà_, a large cow, a noble animal; _Shranguini_, handsome, ornamented, beautiful. The idolaters of Malabar call her _Ama_ or _Tala_, mother; and the ox _Appen_, father. May not the name Apis employed by the Egyptians and the Greeks be the corrupted _Appen_, or _Appa_ of the Indians, which signifies father or creator? The Egyptians were accustomed to give to their Isis the horns of a cow, instead of a head dress. The Indians also worship the cow as a divinity. Most of the houses belonging to the Pagan Indians, not only at _Puduceri_, but upon the whole of both the coasts of _Malabar_ and _Ciòlamandala_, are covered on the outside and inside with cow-dung. The Pagans are accustomed to drink cow’s urine, in order to purify them from their sins. When near the point of death, they take in their hand a cow’s tail; and, according to their belief, if they die in this manner, they are immediately transported to paradise. I have already said, that the cow is a symbol of the moon and the earth. For this reason she is also in India the goddess _Parvadi_ or _Isháni_, _Ishi_ or _Isha_; that is, the woman, the hallowed; under which appellation they understood the moon. She is also the goddess _Ma_ or _Lakshmi_, that is the great, dedicated to the beautiful goddess; and all these sacred names properly signify the earth. The cow has evidently a mystic sense also, which denotes the plastic power of the moon, and the fertility of the earth. For this reason she is held so sacred, and honoured so much, that in Malabar, and every other place where the Pagans have the superiority, any person who kills a cow is hung on a gibbet. The ox which represents Apis, must every three years give place to another. If he dies in the course of these three years of his deification, he is committed to the earth with all that pomp and ceremony observed at the interment of persons of the first rank. Various pagodas, or pagan temples, have on their front the figure of a cow, or perhaps two, of a colossal size[23].

The habitations of the Pagans at _Puduceri_, as well as on the coasts of _Malabar_ and _Ciòlamandala_, are in general very low and dark. In the last-mentioned district they are built of bricks dried in the sun, and are covered with palm leaves. The _Pondiyalas_, or warehouses, in which the Indians keep their merchandise, are also very dark, especially at _Puduceri_ and _Madraspatnam_. As a great deal of muslin is sold at both these places, it is not improbable that the merchants employ such a mode of construction, that the faults of their wares may be better concealed.

The Capuchins of the province of Tours in France have the right of sending a missionary priest to _Puduceri_ when the place becomes vacant. The Ex-Jesuits, in virtue of a decree issued by Louis XVI, have united with the society of the _Missiòns étrangères_, so that they now form only one body. The Europeans are under the care of the Capuchins, and the Indian Christians under that of the Ex-Jesuits. The latter have to attend four thousand Christians: but this number is sometimes greater, sometimes smaller, according as it is peace or war; for, in the time of war, many Indian Christians remove from the place, and either wander about or take refuge in the mountains. Not long before my time, the seminary of _Virapatnam_ had been, transferred to _Ariancopan_, which is the residence of a bishop, who at _Puduceri_, in the kingdoms of _Tanjaur_, _Madura_, and _Carnada_, as also in the province of _Gingi_, is invested with the dignity of apostolical vicar. This man is involved in continual quarrels with the bishop of _Mailapuri_, or _St. Thomas_, a Portuguese, who endeavours to dispute with him the right of spiritual judicature.

According to M. de la Tour’s map, which is the correctest, _Puduceri_ lies in 12° N. lat. and 78° E. lon. On the 1st of January the sun rises here at 23 minutes past six, and sets at 37 minutes past five. On the 28th of August he appears above the horizon at 51 minutes after five, and sinks below it at 9 minutes after six. On the first of December he makes his appearance at 21 minutes past six in the morning, and sets at 38 minutes past five in the evening. From these data the reader may easily calculate the length of the days and the nights.

The river which runs past _Virapatnam_, and discharges itself into the sea on the west of _Puduceri_, is called properly _Ciovanàru_, and not _Chonenbar_, as it is named by the European geographers. _Aru_, in the Malabar and Tamulic languages, signifies a river, and _Ciovano_ red: the compound word is _Ciovanàru_, the red river: and its water, on account of the earth which it washes down in its course, is sometimes indeed of a blood-red colour. But as the Indians shorten the first half of the word, and say _Ciona_, or _Tchona_, instead of _Ciovana_, the Europeans have mutilated it completely, and made of it _Chonenbar_. A similar mutilation of Indian words and appellations is in general not uncommon, especially when they are introduced into foreign languages. On the map of Coromandel, published by M. De la Tour at Paris, in the year 1770, the above river is distinguished by the improper name of _Chonenbar_. That the case is the same with the word _Coromandel_, used instead of _Ciòlamandala_, has been observed before. M. D’Anville, with equal impropriety, not only in his _Geographical Antiquities of India_, printed at the king’s printing-house at Paris, in the year 1775, but also in all his maps of India, gives the name of _Carnata_ to a large kingdom lying to the west of _Puduceri_. Its proper name is _Carnàda_; that is, the black land; from _Car_, black, and _Nada_, land. It is so called in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, in order to distinguish it from _Ciòlamandala_, the land of millet; for the millet thrives best on the districts not far from the sea coast. But the former land lies at a distance from the sea; abounds with excellent pastures; and produces large quantities of rice, pepper, cotton, and other things of the like kind, which can neither grow nor be cultivated in a sandy soil impregnated with marine salt. Of a hundred Indian names which belong to towns and villages in those districts, there are scarcely ten which have not been mutilated and corrupted by foreigners. Those who study the history and geography of India in the works of the Europeans, will every moment meet with passages which require to be amended. In order that this may be done in part, I shall here present the reader with an etymological list of the principal places and towns on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_, or, as the Europeans say, of _Coromandel_; and shall adhere as much as possible to the orthography of the Indians.

NAMES OF CITIES, TOWNS, &C. IN CARNADA AND CIÒLAMANDALA.

_Valiacàda_, the great mountain; or _Valiacadà_, the great passage, or ford, called by the Europeans _Pallicate_; is a city on the sea coast, at the mouth of a small river. The Dutch have a settlement here.

_Ottocutta_, or _Ottukottei_, a solitary city, a solitary castle.

_Pondamala_, or _Pondalamey_, a high mountain; from _Pondu_, high; and _Mala_ or _Maley_, which, in the Tamulic and Malabar languages, signifies a mountain. It is a fortified mountain, called by the Europeans, _Grand Mont_.

_Madraspatnam_; _Patnam_, the city; _Madraspatnam_, the city of _Madras_.

_Maïlapuri_, or _Maïlapuram_, the city of peacocks: the _Meliapur_, or _St. Thomas_ of the Europeans.

_Tirupati_, a sacred place, a sacred temple; called by the Europeans _Tirupeti_. It is situated in _Carnada_, under 14° N. lat. and 77° 15′ E. lon. It is dedicated to _Vishnu_, and is much resorted to by people from all parts of India. The pilgrims, who repair thither to perform their devotions, cut off their hair, and bring it as an offering to _Vishnu_.

_Tirunamalà_, or _Tirunamaley_, the sacred mountain; corrupted into _Tirnimalet_.

_Govalam_, the circuit of the cow; corrupted _Govelan_.

_Uttamalùr_, the good town; corrupted _Outremalour_.

_Arrucati_, a city or castle, from which one can see the river _Paler_; corrupted into _Arcate_.

_Cangipuri_, or _Congipuram_, the golden city; from _Puri_, or _Puram_, the city; and _Cangi_, which in the Samscred signifies gold; corrupted into _Cangivaron_.

_Vencàtighiri_, the woody mountain; corrupted into _Vincatighiri_. It is compounded of _Quiri_, or _Shiri_, a mountain; _Ven_, white; and _Cati_ or _Catil_, in the forest: a city situated on the mountain where the white forest is.

_Ciacrapuri_, or _Ciacrapuram_, the circle city, the round city; corrupted into _Sacrapour_.

_Perumaculam_, the large pond, the large bath; corrupted into _Permacoul_.

_Mangalur_, the fortunate city, the fortunate town.

_Calianatur_, the town of joy.

_Velur_, the town of the lance. At present it is a city.

_Villanùr_, the town of the arrow. On the maps it is called _Villenour_.

_Puduceri_, the next town; on the maps called _Pondichery_.

_Attùr_, the town of goats, or the town where the coco-nuts are ground.

_Krishavaram_, the blessing of the god _Krishna_: a town distinguished on the maps by the name of _Quichenavaron_.

_Divycotta_, the divine castle; from _Divya_, divine; and _Cotta_, a castle or fortress. On the maps it is called _Divicoté_.

NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM OF TANJAUR.

_Tanjaur_, a low situation; or _Tanjiaur_, a miserable, mean, detestable town. It is the capital of a province of the same name. The former orthography seems to be the properest; for _Tanjaur_ really stands on low ground, which is often exposed to inundations.

_Turangaburam_, or _Turangaburi_, the water city, or horse city: by the Europeans called _Tranquebar_.

_Carincala_, the black stone, or rock. It is the _Carical_ of the Europeans.

_Nàvur_, the dogs’ town, or the new town: the _Naour_ of the Europeans.

_Tirumaladùvsam_, the temple of the God of the Holy Mountain, that is of _Shiva_. By the Europeans it is called _Tiremalevasen_.

_Nàgapatnam_, or _Nàgapatana_, the city of the snake, or the city of the elephant; for _Naga_ signifies a snake, and likewise an elephant; and _Patna_, a city. It is the same city as that usually called by the Greeks _Nigamos_, or _Nigama Metropolis_.

_Tiramannùr_ the town of the Holy Land: the _Tremanour_ of the Europeans.

_Cirangam_, or _Cirangapatnam_, the city of the beautiful limbs: from _Cir_, beautiful; _Anga_, a limb; and _Patnam_, the city. It is the _Cheringam_ of the Europeans[24].

_Celiaolam_, the slimy pond; the _Chelicolon_ of the Europeans.

_Tricolùr_, the town of the three pools, or places of lustration. On the maps it is called _Tricoloùr_.

_Palancotta_, the castle of the bridges, for several bridges must be passed before one can arrive at it: from _Pàlam_, or _Pàlan_, a bridge; and _Cotta_, a castle. On the maps it is called _Palancottè_.

NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM OF MADURA.

_Madura_, _Matura_, and _Madhura_, the lovely, the mild city, or the city of the hero _Madhu_. It is the capital of the kingdom of _Madura_, which takes its name from it, but by the Europeans is called _Madure_. This kingdom is named also _Pandi_, or _Pandimandala_, the land of _Pandi_, _Pando_, or _Pandava_, an ancient Indian king, by whom, according to the opinion of the Brahmans, it was founded. Pliny calls this city _Modusa regia Pandionis_; but Ptolemy gives it the name of _Methora_.

_Tricinnapalli_: from _Tri_, three; _Cinna_, small; and _Palli_, a temple or a school. At present it is the capital of _Madura_, and on the maps is called _Trichenapali_.

_Manelùr_, the town on the sand: a town.

_Tindacalla_, the dirty stone or rock; on the maps _Tinducallu_. It is the _Tindis_ of Ptolemy and Arrian.

_Tirnaveli_, or _Tirunnaveli_, the place where the tide ends: is at present a considerable city.

_Mantòpo_, or _Mantòpu_, the garden on good soil: a city.

_Ciangracoil_, the temple of _Ciangra_, or _Shiva_: on the maps called _Sangaravacoil_.

_Uttamapàleam_; from _Uttama_, the best; and _Pàleam_, or _Pàliyam_, the house of government. On the maps it is called _Uttamapaleon_.

NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS ON THE COAST OF PESCARIA, OR, AS THE ANCIENTS CALLED IT, PARALIA.

_Ràmanàthapuram_, the city of _Rama_, of the lord. On the maps it is called _Ramanadaburon_.

_Vayparra_, the three large rocks; a town which is situated near these rocks.

_Tùtucuri_, or _Tùducudi_, a town or place where linen cloth is washed.

_Mannapara_, earth and rocks; from _Manna_, earth; and _Pàrra_, a rock.

_Vadakencolam_, a pond or bath towards the north; at present a city.

_Gòvalam_, the circuit of the cow; at present a town: the _Colis_ or _Colias_ of the antients, lying not far from _Tovala_. It is a strong fortress belonging to the king of _Travancor_, and guards the passage from the kingdom of _Madura_ to Cape _Comari_. On the maps it is called _Covalan_.

NAMES OF CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM OF MAISSUR.

_Maissùr_; from _Maï_, colour; and _Ur_, a land; _Maissùr_, the land of colour. It is not improbable that it obtained this name either from the reddish earth found there in abundance, or the dye plants it produces, and with which the cotton cloth is dyed. This kingdom lies between _Carnada_, _Madura_, and the coast of Malabar.

_Bengalùr_, the white land, the white earth. This name is given to the capital where the nabob Hayder Aly Khan formerly resided. It is a considerable city, strongly fortified.

_Ciringapatnam_, the capital and fortress where the nabob _Tippoo Sultan Bahader_ resides. It lies at the distance of twenty leagues from _Bengalur_, towards the west. On the maps it is called _Chiringapatnam_.

_Dhermapuri_, the city of good works, or the city of virtue; from _Dherma_, virtue; and _Puri_, a city. On the maps it is called _Darmapuri_.

_Dharàburam_, or _Dharàpuram_, the city where the rain water runs off; for it lies at the bottom of that ridge of mountains called the _Gauts_, from which the water pours down in torrents. On the maps it is called _Daraburu_.

_Budhapadi_, the town of _Budha_, an Indian idol. On the maps, _Budapari_.

_Gòculatùr_: from _Go_, a cow; _Cula_, a herd; and _Ur_, the land or town; consequently the land of the herds of cows. On the map, _Guclaturu_.

_Cinnabellapuram_, the small city of strength. On the maps called _Sinnaba’lambaram_.

_Ciandrapati_, or _Tschandrapadi_, the spot in the moon. On the maps _Sandarupati_.

* * * * *

Of such changed and corrupted names a great many more might be produced, but most of them so mutilated, that their real meaning can no longer be guessed, and people would only lose themselves in uncertain conjectures if they endeavoured to discover their etymological origin. It, however, appears by those above mentioned, that some of the Indian cities and towns received their names from Indian deities, others from local circumstances or the nature of their situation; and that such appellations cannot have originated from the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, or Romans. In the eastern part of India no traces of Sesostris or the Greeks are to be found, as some learned men in Europe have erroneously asserted. That India was already civilised in the time of Sesostris, shall be proved hereafter. In regard to the Grecian language and mythology, these were not known in India before the invasion of Alexander the Great, and even then only in some of the maritime cities of the northern part of the country[25].

* * * * *

After this digression I shall now give a short account of the kingdoms of _Madura_, _Tanjaur_, and _Carnada_, according to the information I received from the missionaries resident in those countries; for, as I was not able to remain longer on the coast of _Ciòlamandala_ than from the 26th of July till the 20th of October, it was impossible for me in the course of these few months to learn, by my own experience, every thing that regards this remarkable land. The reader, therefore, will not take it amiss, if I here insert what was communicated to me by intelligent missionaries, who had spent the greater part of their lives in those provinces.