Chapter 94

, page 29, of the _Yuän Shï_:—‘In 1295 sea-traders were forbidden to take fine values to trade with the three foreign states of Ma-pa-r, Pei nan, and Fan-ta-la-i-na, but 2,500,000 nominal taels in paper money were set apart for the purpose.’”

XXV., p. 391.

In the _Yuen Shi_, ch. 94, fol. 11 rᵒ, the “three barbarian kingdoms of _Ma-pa-eul_ (Ma’abar), _Pei-nan_ (corr. _Kiu-nam, Coilam_) and _Fan-ta-la-yi-na_” are mentioned. No doubt the last kingdom refers to the _Fandaraina_ of Ibn Batuta, and Prof. Pelliot, who gives me this information, believes it is also, in the middle of the fourteenth century, _Pan-ta-li_ of the _Tao yi chi lio_.

GOZURAT.

XXV., p. 393. “In this province of Gozurat there grows much pepper, and ginger, and indigo. They have also a great deal of cotton. Their cotton trees are of very great size, growing full six paces high, and attaining to an age of 20 years.”

Chau Ju-kwa has, p. 92: “The native products comprise great quantities of indigo, red kino, myrobolans and foreign cotton stuffs of every colour. Every year these goods are transported to the Ta shï countries for sale.”

XXXI., p. 404.

TWO ISLANDS CALLED MALE AND FEMALE.

Speaking of the fabulous countries of women, Chau Ju-kwa, p. 151, writes: “The women of this country [to the south-east (beyond Sha-hua kung?) Malaysia] conceive by exposing themselves naked to the full force of the south wind, and so give birth to female children.”

“In the Western Sea there is also a country of women where only three females go to every five males; the country is governed by a queen, and all the civil offices are in the hands of women, whereas the men perform military duties. Noble women have several males to wait upon them; but the men may not have female attendants. When a woman gives birth to a child, the latter takes its name from the mother. The climate is usually cold. The chase with bow and arrows is their chief occupation. They carry on barter with Ta-t’sin and T’ien-chu, in which they make several hundred per cent. profit.”

Cf. F. Hirth, _China and the Roman Orient_, pp. 200–202.

XXXII., pp. 406–7. Speaking of Scotra, Marco (II., p. 406) says: “The ambergris comes from the stomach of the whale, and as it is a great object of trade, the people contrive to take the whales with barbed iron darts, which, once they are fixed in the body, cannot come out again. A long cord is attached to this end, to that a small buoy which floats on the surface, so that when the whale dies they know where to find it. They then draw the body ashore and extract the ambergris from the stomach and the oil from the head.”

Chau Ju-kwa, at Chung-li (Somali Coast), has (p. 131): “Every year there are driven on the coast a great many dead fish measuring two hundred feet in length and twenty feet through the body. The people do not eat the flesh of these fish, but they cut out their brains, marrow, and eyes, from which they get oil, often as much as three hundred odd _töng_ (from a single fish). They mix this oil with lime to caulk their boats, and use it also in lamps. The poor people use the ribs of these fish to make rafters, the backbones for door leaves, and they cut off vertebræ to make mortars with.”

SCOTRA.

XXXII., p. 407. “And you must know that in this island there are the best enchanters in the world. It is true that their Archbishop forbids the practice to the best of his ability; but ’tis all to no purpose, for they insist that their forefathers followed it, and so must they also. I will give you a sample of their enchantments. Thus, if a ship be sailing past with a fair wind and a strong, they will raise a contrary wind and compel her to turn back. In fact they make the wind blow as they list, and produce great tempests and disasters; and other such sorceries they perform, which it will be better to say nothing about in our Book.”

Speaking of Chung-li (Somali Coast), Chau Ju-kwa writes, p. 130: “There are many sorcerers among them who are able to change themselves into birds, beasts, or aquatic animals, and by these means keep the ignorant people in a state of terror. If some of them in trading with some foreign ship have a quarrel, the sorcerers pronounce a charm over the ship, so that it can neither go forward nor backward, and they only release the ship when it has settled the dispute. The government has formally forbidden this practice.”

Hirth and Rockhill add, p. 132: “Friar Joanno dos Santos (A.D. 1597) says: ‘In the Ile of Zanzibar dwelt one Chande, a great sorcerer, which caused his Pangayo, which the Factor had taken against his will, to stand still as it were in defiance of the Winde, till the Factor had satisfied him, and then to fly forth the River after her fellowes at his words. He made that a Portugall which had angered him, could never open his mouth to speake, but a Cocke crowed in his belly, till he had reconciled himselfe: with other like sorceries.’” See PURCHAS, _His Pilgrimes_, IX., 254.

“Not twenty years ago, Theo. Bent found that the Somalis were afraid of the witchcraft of the natives of Socotra. Theo. BENT, _Southern Arabia_, p. 361.”

XXXIII., p. 412. Speaking of the bird Ruc at Madeigascar, Marco Polo says: “It is so strong that it will seize an elephant in its talons and carry him high into the air, and drop him so that he is smashed to pieces; having so killed him the bird gryphon swoops down on him and eats him at leisure.”

Chau Ju-kwa writing of K’un lun ts’öng’ ki, on the coast of Africa, writes, p. 149: “This country is in the sea to the south-west. It is adjacent to a large island. There are usually (there, _i.e._, on the great island) great _p’öng_ birds which so mask the sun in their flight that the shade on the sundial is shifted. If the great _p’öng_ finds a wild camel it swallows it, and if one should chance to find a _p’öng’s_ feather, he can make a water-butt of it, after cutting off the hollow quill.”

XXXIII., p. 421.

THE RUKH.

The Chinese traveller Chau Ju-kwa in his work _Chu-fan-chï_ on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, speaking of the country of Pi p’a lo (Berbera), says: “The country brings forth also the (so-called) ‘camel crane’, which measures from the ground to its crown from six to seven feet. It has wings and can fly, but not to any great height.” The translators and commentators Hirth and Rockhill have (p. 129) the following notes: “Quotation from _Ling-wai-tai-ta_, 3, 6ᵃ. The ostrich was first made known to the Chinese in the beginning of the second century of our era, when some were brought to the court of China from Parthia. The Chinese then called them _An-si-tsio_ ‘Parthian bird.’ See _Hou Han Shu_, 88, and Hirth, _China and Roman Orient_, 39. In the _Weï shu_, 102, 12^b, no name is given them, they are simply ‘big birds which resemble a camel, which feed on herbs and flesh and are able to eat fire.’ In the _T’ang shu_, 221, 7ᵃ, it is said that this bird is commonly called ‘camel-bird.’ It is seven feet high, black of colour, its feet like those of the camel, it can travel three hundred _li_ a day, and is able to eat iron. The ostrich is called by the Persians _ushturmurgh_ and by the Arabs _ṭeir al-djamal_, both meaning ‘camel birds.’”

Dr. Bretschneider in his Notes on _Chinese Mediæval Travellers to the West_ (1875), p. 87, n. 132, has a long note with a figure from the _Pen ts’ao kang mu_ on the “camel-bird” (p. 88).

Cf. F. Hirth, _Die Länder des Islam_, Supp. Vol. V. of _T’oung Pao_, 1894, p. 54. Tsuboi Kumazo, _Actes XIIᵉ Cong. Int. Orient.,_ Rome, 1899, II., p. 120.

XXXIII., p. 421.

GIRAFFES.

Speaking of Pi p’a lo (Berbera Coast) Chau Ju-kwa (p. 128) says: “There is also (in this country) a wild animal called _tsu-la;_ it resembles a camel in shape, an ox in size, and is of a yellow colour. Its fore legs are five feet long, its hind legs only three feet. Its head is high up and turned upwards. Its skin is an inch thick.” Giraffe is the iranised form of the arabic _zurāfa_. Mention is made of giraffes by Chinese authors at Aden and Mekka. Cf. FERRAND, _J. Asiatique_, July–August, 1918, pp. 155–158.

XXXIV., p. 422.

ZANGHIBAR.

We read in the _Tao i chi lio_: “This country [Ts’eng yao lo] is to the south-west of the Ta Shih (Arabs). There are no trees on the coast; most of the land is saline. The arable ground is poor, so there is but little grain of any kind, and they mostly raise yams to take its place.

“If any ship going there to trade carries rice as cargo, it makes very large profits.

“The climate is irregular. In their usages they have the rectitude of olden times.

“Men and women twist up their hair; they wear a short seamless shirt. The occupation of the people is netting birds and beasts for food.

“They boil sea-water to make salt and ferment the juice of the sugar-cane to make spirits. They have a ruler.

“The native products comprise red sandal-wood, dark red sugar-cane, elephants’ tusks, ambergris, native gold, _ya tsui tan-fan_, lit., ‘duck-bill sulphate of copper.’

“The goods used in trading are ivory boxes, trade silver, coloured satins, and the like.” (ROCKHILL, _T’oung Pao_, XVI., 1915, pp. 622–3.) Cf. CHAU JU-KWA, p. 126.

XXXIV., p. 423. “There is a great deal of trade, and many merchants and vessels go thither. But the staple trade of the Island is elephants’ teeth, which are very abundant; and they have also much ambergris, as whales are plentiful.”

Chau Ju-kwa has, p. 126: “The products of the country [Ts’öng-pa] consist of elephants’ tusks, native gold, ambergris and yellow sandal-wood.”

XXXVI., p. 438.

ADEN.

In the _Ying yai shêng lan_ we read that “the kingdom (of A-tan) is on the sea-coast. It is rich and prosperous, the people follow the doctrine of the Moslims and their speech is Arabic. Their tempers are overbearing and violent. They have seven to eight thousand well-trained soldiers, horse and foot, whom the neighbouring countries fear.” (W. W. ROCKHILL, _T’oung Pao_, XVI., 1915, p. 607.) There is a description of the giraffe under the name of _K’i lin_; it “has forelegs over nine feet long, its hind ones are about six feet. Beside its ears grow fleshy horns. It has a cow’s tail and a deer’s body. It eats millet, beans, and flour cakes” (p. 609). In the _Si Yang Chao kung tien lu_ (1520 A.D.), we have a similar description: “Its front legs are nine feet long, its hind legs six feet. Its hoofs have three clefts, it has a flat mouth. Two short fleshy horns rise from the back of the top of its head. It has a cow’s tail and a deer’s body. This animal is called _K’i lin_; it eats grain of any kind.” (_Ibid._) Cf. FERRAND, _J. Asiatique_, July–Aug., 1918, pp. 155–158.

XXXVI., p. 439.

At the time of Chau Ju-kwa, Aden was perhaps the most important port of Arabia for the African and Arabian trade with India and the countries beyond. It seems highly probable that the Ma-li-pa of the Chinese must be understood as including Aden, of which they make no mention whatsoever, but which was one of “the great commercial centres of the Arabs.” HIRTH and ROCKHILL, p. 25 n.

XXXVI., pp. 442 _seq._

THE CITY OF ESHER.

Shehr, a port on the Hadhramaut coast, is mentioned by Chau Ju-kwa under the name of _Shï ho_ among the dependencies of the country of the _Ta-shï_ (Arabs). (HIRTH and ROCKHILL, p. 116.)

XXXVIII., pp. 444–445.

DUFAR.

We read in the _Ying yai shêng lan:_ “This country [Tsu fa erh] is between the sea and the mountains. To the east and south is nothing but the sea. To the north and west are ranges of mountains. One reaches it from the kingdom of Ku-li (Calicut) journeying north-westward for ten days and nights. It has no walled towns or villages. The people all follow the religion of the Moslims. Their physical appearance is good, their culture is great, the language sincere.

“The native products are frankincense, which is the sap of a tree. There is also dragon’s blood, aloes, myrrh, _an-hsi-hsiang_ (benzoin), liquid storax, _muh-pieh-tzŭ (Momordica cochinchinensis)_, and the like, all of which they exchange for Chinese hempen cloth, silks, and china-ware.” (ROCKHILL, _T’oung Pao_, XVI., 1915, pp. 611–612.)

The _Sing ch’a shêng lan_ mentions: “The products are the _tsu-la-fa_ (giraffe), gold coins, leopards, ostriches, frankincense, ambergris.” (_Ibid._, p. 614.)

Dufar is mentioned by Chau Ju-kwa under the name of Nu-fa among the dependencies of the country of the _Ta-shï_ (Arabs). (HIRTH and ROCKHILL, pp. 116, 121.)

XXXVIII., pp. 445–449.

FRANKINCENSE.

Chau Ju-kwa (HIRTH and ROCKHILL, pp. 195–196) tells us: “_Ju hiang_ (‘milk incense’), or _hün-lu-hiang_, comes from the three Ta-shï countries of Ma-lo-pa, Shï-ho, and Nu-fa, from the depths of the remotest mountain valleys. The tree which yields this drug may, on the whole, be compared to the _sung_ (pine). Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin flows out, and when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps. It is transported on elephants to the Ta-shï (on the coast); the Ta-shï load it upon their ships for barter against other goods in San-fo-ts’i: and it is for this reason that the incense is commonly collected at San-fo-ts’i [the three ports of the Hadhramaut coast].

“When the foreign merchants come to that place to trade, the Customs authorities, according to the relative strength of its fragrance, distinguish thirteen classes of incense. Of these, the very best is called _kién-hiang_, or ‘picked incense’: it is round and of the size of the end of a finger; it is commonly called _ti-ju_ or ‘dripping milk.’ The second quality is called _p’ing ju_, or ‘potted milk,’ and its colour is inferior to that of the ‘picked incense.’ The next quality is called _p’ing hiang_, or ‘potted incense,’ so called, they say, owing to its being prized so much at the time of gathering, that it is placed in pots (_p’ing_). In this _p’ing hiang_ (variety of frankincense) there are three grades, superior, medium and inferior. The next quality is called _tai-hiang_, or ‘bag incense’; thus called, they say, because at the time of gathering, it is merely put into bags; it is also divided into three qualities, like the _p’ing hiang_.

“The next kind is the _ju-t’a_; it consists of incense mixed with gravel.

“The next kind is the _heï-t’a_, because its colour is black. The next kind is the _shui-shï-heï-t’a_, because it consists of incense which has been ‘water damaged,’ the aroma turned, and the colour spoiled while on board ship.

“Mixed incense of various qualities and consisting of broken pieces is called _chö-siau_ (‘cut-up’); when passed through a sieve and made into dust, it is called _ch’an-mo_ (‘powder’). The above are the various varieties of frankincense.”

BOOK FOURTH.

WARS AMONG THE TARTAR PRINCES AND SOME ACCOUNT OF THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES.

XXII., p. 488.

RUSSIA.

“It seems that Russia [Chinese _A-lo-sz’_ = Mongol _Oros_; the modern Chinese name for Russia is _Wo-lo-sz’_] was unknown to the nations of Eastern Asia before the Mongol period. In the Mongol and Chinese annals the Russians are first mentioned after Subutai’s invasion of Southern Russia in 1223. The _Yüan chao pi shi_ terms Russia or the Russians _Orus_, as they are called even now by the Mongols. The Chinese of the Mongol period write _A-lo-sz’_, sometimes also _Wa-lo-sz’_ or _U-lu-sz’_. All these names evidently render the Mongol appellation _Orus_.

“In the _Yüan shï_ Russia is frequently mentioned.... I may notice here some other instances where the Russians are spoken of in the _Yüan-shï_. We read in the annals, _s.a._ 1253, that the Emperor Meng k’o (Mangu) ordered Bi-dje Bie-rh-k’o to be sent to Wu-lo-sz’ in order to take a census of the people.

“It is an interesting fact recorded in the _Yüan shï_ that there was in the first half of the fourteenth century a settlement of Russians near Peking. In the annals, chap. XXXIV., _s.a._ 1330, it is stated that the Emperor Wen Tsung (Tob Timur, 1329–32, the great grandson of Kubilai), formed a regiment composed of _U-lo-sz’_ or Russians. This regiment being commanded by a _wan hu_ (commander of ten thousand of the third degree), received the name ‘The Ever-faithful Russian Life-guard.’ It was placed under the direct control of the council of war. Farther on in the same chapter it is stated that 140 _king_ of land, north of _Ta tu_ (Peking) was bought from the peasants and allotted to these Russians, to establish a camp and to form a military colony. We read again in the same chapter that they were furnished with implements of agriculture, and were bound to present for the imperial table every kind of game, fish, etc., found in the forests, rivers, and lakes of the country where their camp was situated. This Russian regiment is again mentioned in chap. XXXV.

“In