Part 1

# Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John": Volume 4, Slice 3 ### By Various

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:

ARTICLE BOROUGH: "In London in the 13th century there was a regular system for the admission of new members to the borough..." 'London' amended from 'Londom'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME IV, SLICE III

Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

BORGIA, LUCREZIA BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL BOULTON, MATTHEW BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO BOUND BORGO SAN DONNINO BOUNDS, BEATING THE BORGU BOUNTY BORIC ACID BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER BORING BOURBON BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV BOURBON, CHARLES BORISOGLYEBSK BOURBON-LANCY BORKU BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT BORKUM BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS BORLASE, WILLIAM BOURCHIER, ARTHUR BORMIO BOURCHIER, THOMAS BORN, IGNAZ BOURDALOUE, LOUIS BORNA BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS BORNE, KARL LUDWIG BOURG-EN-BRESSE BORNEO BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE BORNHOLM BOURGEOIS BORNIER, HENRI BOURGES BORNU BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE BORODINO BOURKE BOROLANITE BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR BORON BOURNE, VINCENT BOROUGH, STEVEN BOURNE (town) BOROUGH BOURNE (stream) BOROUGHBRIDGE BOURNEMOUTH BOROUGH ENGLISH BOURNONITE BORROMEAN ISLANDS BOURREE BORROMEO, CARLO BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE BORROMINI, FRANCESCO BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE BORROW, GEORGE HENRY BOURSAULT, EDME BORSIPPA BOURSE BORT BOURSSE, ESAIAS BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE BORZHOM BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH BOS, LAMBERT BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE BOSA BOUTS-RIMES BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME BOUVARDIA BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH BOSCASTLE BOUVIER, JOHN BOSCAWEN, EDWARD BOUVINES BOSCH, JEROM BOVEY BEDS BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH BOVIANUM BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA BOVIDAE BOSPORUS BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS BOVILLAE BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH BOW BOSS BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD BOSSI, GIUSEPPE BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL BOSSU, RENE LE BOWDLER, THOMAS BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE BOWDOIN, JAMES BOSTANAI BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE BOSTON, THOMAS BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN BOSTON (Lincolnshire, England) BOWEN, FRANCIS BOSTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON BOSTON (game of cards) BOWER, WALTER BOSTONITE BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT BOSTROM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB BOWIE, JAMES BOSWELL, JAMES BOW-LEG BOSWORTH, JOSEPH BOWLES, SAMUEL BOTANY BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE BOTANY BAY BOWLINE BOTHA, LOUIS BOWLING BOTHNIA, GULF OF BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.) BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.) BOTHWELL (town) BOWLS BOTOCUDOS BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE BOTORI BOWRING, SIR JOHN BOTOSHANI BOWTELL BO-TREE BOWYER, WILLIAM BOTRYTIS BOX BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO BOXING BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI BOXWOOD BOTTICELLI, SANDRO BOYACA BOTTIGER, KARL AUGUST BOYAR BOTTLE BOY-BISHOP BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS BOYCE, WILLIAM BOTTLENOSE WHALE BOYCOTT BOTTOMRY BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON BOTZARIS, MARCO BOYD, ROBERT BOYD BOTZEN BOYD, ZACHARY BOUCHARDON, EDME BOYDELL, JOHN BOUCHER, FRANCOIS BOYER, ALEXIS BOUCHER, JONATHAN BOYER, JEAN PIERRE BOUCHER DE CREVCOEUR, JACQUES BOYLE, JOHN J. BOUCHES-DU-RHONE BOYLE, ROBERT BOUCHOR, MAURICE BOYLE (town) BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOEL BOYNE BOUCICAULT, DION BOYS' BRIGADE BOUCICAUT, JEAN BOZDAR BOUDIN, EUGENE BOZRAH BOUDINOT, ELIAS BRABANT (duchy) BOUE, AMI BRABANT (Belgium) BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANCOIS BRABANT, NORTH BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN BRACCIANO BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY BRACE, CHARLES LORING BOUGIE BRACE, JULIA BOUGUER, PIERRE BRACE BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE BRACELET BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE BRACHIOPODA BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR BRACHISTOCHRONE BOUILLON BRACHYCEPHALIC BOUILLOTTE BRACKYLOGUS BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS BRACKET BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI BRACKET-FUNGI BOULANGER BRACKLESHAM BEDS BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH BRACKLEY BOULDER (Colorado, U.S.A.) BRACQUEMOND, FELIX BOULDER (large stone) BRACTON, HENRY DE BOULDER CLAY BRADAWL BOULE BRADDOCK, EDWARD BOULEVARD BRADDOCK BOULLE, ANDRE CHARLES BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH BOULOGNE BRADFORD, JOHN BOULOGNE-SUR-MER

BORGIA, LUCREZIA (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI. (q.v.), by his mistress Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at Rome in 1480. Her early years were spent at her mother's house near her father's splendid palace; but later she was given over to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of Cardinal Borgia and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his mistresses. Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music, embroidery, painting, &c.; she was famed for her beauty and charm, but the corrupt court of Rome in which she was brought up was not conducive to a good moral education. Her father at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for her, and at the age of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de Centelles, a Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another Spaniard, Don Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa. On the death of Innocent VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI., and, contemplating a yet more ambitious marriage for his daughter, he annulled the union with Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when the pope's policy changed and he became friendly to the king of Naples, the enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the subjugation of the vassal lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling his position insecure, left Rome for Pesaro with his wife. By Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the pope had all his children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a series of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband's impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with Naples, he married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of Bisceglie, a handsome youth of eighteen, related to the Neapolitan king. But he too realized the fickleness of the Borgias' favour when Alexander backed up Louis XII. of France in the latter's schemes for the conquest of Naples. Bisceglie fled from Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent Lucrezia to receive the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On her return to Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was induced to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the order of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie, Lucrezia retired to Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where she acted for a time as regent during Alexander's absence. The latter now was anxious for a union between his daughter and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d'Este, duke of Ferrara. The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither Alphonso nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of Borgia, and Lucrezia's own reputation was not unblemished. However, by bribes and threats the opposition was overcome, and in September 1501 the marriage was celebrated by proxy with great magnificence in Rome. On Lucrezia's arrival at Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her youthful charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth she led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath of scandal. On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became duke, and she gathered many learned men, poets and artists at her court, among whom were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus Manutius the printer, and the painters Titian and Dosso Dossi. She devoted herself to the education of her children and to charitable works; the only tragedy connected with this period of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to have admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso's jealousy. She died on the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter by the duke of Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke of Bisceglie, and possibly another of doubtful paternity. She seems to have been a woman of very mediocre talents, and only played a part in history because she was the daughter of Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women around her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of incest with her father and brothers which were brought against her by the scandal-mongers of the time.

See the bibliographies for ALEXANDER VI. and BORGIA, CESARE; and especially F. Gregorovius's _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), the standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert's _Lucrezia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara_ (London, 1869), which, while containing much information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori's "Una Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia," in the _Nuova Antologia_ (August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia. (L. V.*)

BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL (1868- ), American sculptor, was born in Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868, the son of a Danish wood-carver. He studied under Louis F. Rebisso in the Cincinnati art school in 1895-1897, and under Fremiet in Paris. He took as his chief subjects incidents of western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he was familiar from his years on the ranch; notably "Lassoing Wild Horses," "Stampeding Wild Horses," "Last Round-up," "On the Border of White Man's Land," and "Burial on the Plains." His elder brother, Gutzon Borglum (b. 1867), also showed himself an artist of some originality.

BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter of the Milanese school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani da Fossano, was approximately contemporary with Leonardo da Vinci, but represented, at least during a great part of his career, the tendencies of Lombard art anterior to the arrival of that master--the tendencies which he had adopted and perfected from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and Zenale. We are not precisely informed of the dates either of the death or the birth of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian school. His fame is principally associated with that of one great building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the Carthusians at Pavia, for which he worked much and in many different ways. It is certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the tradition which represents him as having designed, in 1473, the celebrated facade of the Certosa itself. His residence there appears to have been of eight years' duration, from 1486, when he furnished the designs of the figures of the virgin, saints and apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in _tarsia_ or inlaid wood work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to Milan. Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his career earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to Milan he worked at the church of San Satiro in that city. From 1497 he was engaged for some time in decorating with paintings the church of the Incoronata in the neighbouring town at Lodi. Our notices of him thenceforth are few and far between. In 1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his signature appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524--and this is our last authentic record--he painted a series of frescoes illustrating the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan. Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty, Borgognone is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an interesting place in the most interesting period of Italian art. The National Gallery, London, has two fair examples of his work --the separate fragments of a silk banner painted for the Certosa, and containing the heads of two kneeling groups severally of men and women; and a large altar-piece of the marriage of St Catherine, painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near Pavia. But to judge of his real powers and peculiar ideals--his system of faint and clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his somewhat slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive love of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed energy in figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in the matter of storied and minutely diversified backgrounds--to judge of these qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary to study first the great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at the Certosa, and next those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces at Milan and Lodi, in which we find the influence of Leonardo and of the new time mingling with, but not expelling, his first predilections.

BORGO SAN DONNINO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Parma. Pop. (1901) town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It occupies the site of the ancient Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no doubt, as its name shows, of Roman origin. Here M. Lucullus defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 B.C. It was independent under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom of S. Domninus under Maximian in A.D. 304. The cathedral, erected in honour of this saint, is one of the finest and best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque churches of the 11th-13th centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the facade is incomplete, but the lower, with its three portals and sculptures, is very fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned, and has not been spoilt by restorations. For the _benitier_, a work of the early 11th century, see _Rassegna d'Arte_, 1905, 180. Not far from the town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century structure in brick (_ib_., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale, in the Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century. Borgo S. Donnino is an important centre for the produce and cattle of Emilia. (T. As.)

BORGU, or BARBA, an inland country of West Africa. The western part is included in the French colony of Dahomey (q.v.); the eastern division forms the Borgu province of the British protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu is bounded N.E. and E. by the Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by Gurma. The country consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers draining north or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger basin and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east and south-west near the western frontier. In about 10 deg. N., below the town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger, navigable up to that point from the sea. The soil is mostly fertile, and is fairly cultivated, producing in abundance millet, yams, plantains and limes. The acacia tree is common, and from it gum-arabic of good quality is obtained. From the nut of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. Cattle are numerous and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu is inhabited by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the country, the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king of Bussa was another more or less powerful potentate. In the early years of the 19th century Borgu was invaded by the Fula (q.v.), but the Bariba (as the people are called collectively) maintained their independence. In 1894 Borgu became the object of rivalry between France and England. The Royal Niger Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection with the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D. Lugard to negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other chiefs, and Lugard succeeded in doing so a few days before the arrival of French expeditions from the west. Disregarding the British treaties, French officers concluded others with various chiefs, invaded Bussa and established themselves at various points on the Niger. To defend British interests, the West African Frontier Force was raised locally under Lugard's command, and a period of great tension ensued, British and French troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was, however, averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western part of Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the French withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.

The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m. Up to the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria little or nothing was known of the country, though there were interesting legends of the antiquity of its history. The population was entirely independent, and resisted with success not only the Fula from the north but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi from the south and west. Travellers who attempted to penetrate this country had never returned. Since 1898 the country has been opened, and from being the most lawless and truculent of people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced by civil police. The assessment of taxes under British administration was successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected without trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but not industrious or inclined for trade. In the north there are some pastoral settlements of Fula. The Bariba themselves remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been constructed between the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural resources of Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the cessation of war and by immigration the country should show marked development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are still to be found in the fifty-mile strip of forest land which stretches between the Niger and the interior of the province. The forest contains valuable sylvan products, and there are great possibilities for the cultivation of rubber. There are also extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton, with the waterway of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought from Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally started. (See NIGERIA and BUSSA.)

BORIC ACID, or BORACIC ACID, H3BO3, an acid obtained by dissolving boron trioxide in water. It was first prepared by Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715) from borax, by the action of mineral acids, and was given the name _sal sedativum Hombergi_. The presence of boric acid or its salts has been noted in sea-water, whilst it is also said to exist in plants and especially in almost all fruits (A.H. Allen, _Analyst_, 1904, 301). The free acid is found native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany, the Lipari Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures in the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals (borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).

The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the Maremma of Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country over which jets of vapour and heated gases (_soffioni_) and springs of boiling water spurt out from chasms and fissures. In some places the fissures open directly into the air, but in other parts of the district they are covered by small muddy lakes (_lagoni_). The soffioni contain a small quantity of boric acid (usually less than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of ammoniacal vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is constructed over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the passage of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into the highest basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon brought into a state of ebullition; after remaining in this basin for about a day, it is run off into the second one and is treated there in a similar manner. The operation is carried on through the entire series, until the liquor in the last basin contains about 2% of boric acid. It is then run into settling tanks, from which it next passes into the evaporating pans, which are shallow lead-lined pans heated by the gases of the soffioni. These pans are worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first being concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified by recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes prepared by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached, and the water so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated with boric acid to be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also obtained from boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric acid, followed by the evaporation of the solution so obtained. The residue is then heated in a current of superheated steam, in which the boric acid volatilizes and distils over. It may also be obtained by the decomposition of boracite with hot hydrochloric acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution of borax.

Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O = Na2SO4 + 4H3BO3.

Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae belonging to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold water, but dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the "weak" acids, its dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, _Jour. of Chem. Soc._, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus to a claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a turmeric paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown, the colour becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the addition of sodium or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black. Boric acid is easily soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution be inflamed it burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The acid on being heated to 100 deg. C. loses water and is converted into _metaboric acid_, HBO3; at 140 deg. C., _pyroboric acid_, H2B4O7, is produced; at still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of the normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid. That orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of ethyl orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which corresponds to the molecular formula B(OC2H5)3; the molecular formula of the acid must consequently be B(OH)3 or H3BO3. The metallic borates are generally obtained in the hydrated condition, and with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in water. The most important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or borax (q.v.).

Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence they may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and butter (see ADULTERATION). In medicine boracic acid is used in solution to relieve itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic to impregnate lint or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too feeble to be relied upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics, such as mercuric chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been already employed, boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous and non-irritant) may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic or non-bacterial condition which they have obtained. Borax taken internally is of some value in irritability of the bladder, but as a urinary antiseptic it is now surpassed by several recently introduced drugs, such as urotropine.