Part 15

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Capus, _A travers la Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_ (Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the combined provinces, their resources and population. J. Asboth, _An Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina_ (London, 1890) is valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography: A. Bordeaux, _La Bosnie populaire_ (Paris, 1904) for social life and mining. Much information is also contained in the works by Lamouche, Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and Laveleye, cited under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also B. Nikasinovic, _Bosnien und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der osterreich-ungarischen Monarchie_ (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, _Auf dem Rade durch Kroatien und Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1903). The best map is that of the Austrian General Staff. See also for geology, J. Cvijic, _Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1900); F. Katzer, _Geologischer Fuhrer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Serajevo, 1903); P. Ballif, _Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, 1896). Sport: "Snaffle," _In the Land of the Bora_ (London, 1897). Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports, and the official _Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen_ (1879 and 1895), and _Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (1899). The chief official publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro, _Through Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_ (Edinburgh, 1900); A.J. Evans, _Illyrian Letters_ (London, 1878); W. Radimsky, _Die neolithische Station von Butmir_ (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif, _Romische Strassen in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following books:--A. Theiner, _Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_ (Rome, 1860) and _Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium_ (1. Rome, 1863; 2. Agram, 1875),--these are collections of Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, _Monumenta historica Slavorum Meridionalium_ (Belgrade, 1885); Y. Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad historiam Serborum_, &c. (Belgrade, 1860-1862); F. Miklosich, _Monumenta Serbica_ (Vienna, 1858). Other important authorities are G. Lucio, _De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_ (Amsterdam, 1666); M. Orbini, _Regno degli Slavi_ (Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and others, _Illyricum Sacrum_ (Venice, 1751-1819); C. du Fresne du Cange, _Illyricum vetus et novum_ (1746); M. Simek, _Politische Geschichte des Konigreiches Bosnien und Rama_ (Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for the period after 1463, is by P. Coquelle, _Histoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnie_ (Paris, 1895). See also V. Klaic, _Geschichte Bosniens_ (Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaikovitch (Spalajkovic), in _La Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_ (Paris, 1897), give a critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration. (K. G. J.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance, were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years allowed by Turkish law.

[2] _De Administrando Imperio_, 33 and 34. The names of _Chulmia_ and _Chelmo_, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.

[3] For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia, see L. Villari, _The Republic of Ragusa_ (London, 1904).

[4] Given by Theiner, _Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia_, 173-185.

[5] This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The Slavs were probably Bogomils.

[6] These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti_, &c.

[7] For details of these events see Umar Effendi, _History of the War in Bosnia_ (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).

[8] For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans, _Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot_ (London, 1876); and W.J. Stillman, _Herzegovina and the Late Uprising_ (London, 1877).

BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. [Greek: Bosporos] = ox-ford, traditionally connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings). By the ancients this name, signifying a strait, was especially applied to the _Bosporus Cimmerius_ (see below), and the _Bosporus Thracius_; but when used without any adjective it now denotes the latter, which unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora and forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. The channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at the northern entrance of 2-3/4 m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds., and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite direction below the surface and along the shores. The surface current varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at narrow places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very rarely frozen over, though history records a few instances; and the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople lies, has been

## partially frozen over occasionally in modern times. The shores of the

Bosporus are composed in the northern portion of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte; but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls, quartzose conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various kinds. The scenery on both sides is of the most varied and beautiful description, many villages lining each well-wooded shore, while on the European side are numerous fine residences of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is under Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the treaty of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the Dardanelles) without the countenance of the Porte. (See also CONSTANTINOPLE.)

BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS, the ancient name for the Straits of Kerch or Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov; the Cimmerii (q.v.) were the ancient inhabitants. The straits are about 25 m. long and 2-1/2 m. broad at the narrowest, and are formed by an eastern extension of the Crimea and the peninsula of Taman, a kind of continuation of the Caucasus. This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, q.v.), the chief of all, often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on the east Phanagoria (Sennaja), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus, Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians, Panticapaeum in the 7th or early in the 6th century B.C., but Phanagoria (c. 540 B.C.) was a colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum had some connexion with Athens--at least it appears to have been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. They comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens, textiles and specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.

According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was governed from 480 to 438 B.C. by the Archaeanactidae, probably a ruling family, who gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431 B.C.), apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 B.C. The Spartocids have left many inscriptions which tell us that the earlier members of the house ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and other branches of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the inscriptions and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus, established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a serious commercial rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct proximity to the cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was reserved for his son Leucon (387-347) to take this city. He was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II. and Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his brother reigned alone until 310. Then followed a civil war in which Eumelus (310-303) was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. (303-283) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know only that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway against the power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus, general of Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a Scythian Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The house of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customers for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the staple at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges. We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In return the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up decrees in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great entrusted the Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who, however, deserted to the Romans. But even when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey, Mithradates was strong enough to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and Machares slew himself. Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt under Pharnaces, another of the old king's sons. After the death of Mithradates (B.C. 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to Pompey, but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain by a pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and in spite of Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king, until 16 B.C. After his death Dynamis was compelled to marry an adventurer Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa interfered and set Polemon (14-8) in his place. To him succeeded Aspurgus (8 B.C.-A.D. 38?), son of Asander, who founded a line of kings which endured with certain interruptions until A.D. 341. These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys, Rhescuporis, Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates, claimed descent from Mithradates the Great, and used the Pontic era (starting from 297 B.C.) introduced by him, regularly placing dates upon their coins and inscriptions. Hence we know their names and dates fairly well, though scarcely any events of their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of garrison and fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these periods (A.D. 255) the Goths and Borani were enabled to seize Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Asia Minor. With the last coin of the last Rhescuporis, A.D. 341, materials for a connected history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have been revived under Byzantine protection, and from time to time Byzantine officers built fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which was constituted an archbishopric. They also held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic side of the strait, a town which in the 10th and 11th centuries became the seat of the Russian principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn gave place to Tatar domination.

The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic state, the first, that is to say, in which a mixed population adopted the Greek language and civilization. It depended for its prosperity upon the export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this commerce supported a class whose wealth and vulgarity are exemplified by the contents of the numerous tombs to which reference has been made. In later times a Jewish element was added to the population, and under its influence were developed in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies of "worshippers of the highest God," apparently professing a monotheism which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian was purer than any found among the inhabitants of the Empire.

We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other cities from the 5th century B.C. The gold _staters_ of Panticapaeum bearing Pan's head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their weight and fine workmanship. We have also coins with the names of the later Spartocids and a singularly complete series of dated _solidi_ issued by the later or Achaemenian dynasty; in them may be noticed the swift degeneration of the gold _solidus_ through silver and potin to bronze (see also NUMISMATICS).

See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, _Inscrr. orae Septent. Ponti Euxini_, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art. "Bosporus" (2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl._ vol. iii. 757 (Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_ (Cambridge, 1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv. (St Petersburg, 1901). Coins: B. Koehne, _Musee Kotschoubey_ (St Petersburg, 1855). Religious Societies: E. Schurer in _Sitzber. d. k. pr. Akad. d. Wissenschaft zu Berlin_ (1897), i. pp. 200-227. Excavations: _Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien_ (St Petersburg, 1854, repr. Paris, 1892) and _Compte rendu_ and _Bulletin de la Commission Imp. Archeologique de St. Petersbourg_. (E. H. M.)

BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1810-1861), French marshal, entered the artillery in 1833, and a year later went to Algeria. Here he soon did good service, and made himself remarkable not only for technical skill but the moral qualities indispensable for high command. Becoming captain in 1839, he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command of a battalion of native _tirailleurs_, and in 1843 was thanked in general orders for his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In 1845 he became lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a French line regiment. In the following year he was in charge of the Oran district, where his swift suppression of an insurrection won him further promotion to the grade of general of brigade, in which rank he went through the campaign of Kabulia, receiving a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France after nineteen years' absence, a general of division. Bosquet was amongst the earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the battle of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet's corps of two divisions protected them against interruption. His timely intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854) secured the victory for the allies. During 1855 Bosquet's corps occupied the right wing of the besieging armies opposite the Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his corps at the storming of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault of the 8th of September he was in command of the whole of the storming troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another serious wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the foremost soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of France, but his health was broken, and he lived only a few years longer. He had the grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidieh of the 1st class.

BOSS. (1) (From the O. Eng. _boce_, a swelling, cf. Ital. _bozza_, and Fr. _bosse_, possibly connected with the O. Ger. _bozan_, to beat), a round protuberance; the projecting centre or "umbo" of a buckler; in geology a projection of rock through strata of another species; in architecture, the projecting keystone of the ribs of a vault which masks their junction; the term is also applied to similar projecting blocks at every intersection. The boss was often richly carved, generally with conventional foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque figures. The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the 15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2) (From the Dutch _baas_, a word used by the Dutch settlers in New York for "master," and so generally used by the Kaffirs in South Africa; connected with the Ger. _Base_, cousin, meaning a "chief kinsman," the head of a household or family), a colloquial term, first used in America, for an employer, a foreman, and generally any one who gives orders, especially in American political slang for the manager of a party organization.

BOSSI, GIUSEPPE (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer on art, was born at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan. He was educated at the college of Monza; and his early fondness for drawing was fostered by the director of the college, who supplied him with prints after the works of Agostino Caracci for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at Milan, and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became assistant secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine Arts. He rendered important service in the organization of this new institution. In 1804, in conjunction with Oriani, he drew up the rules of the three academies of art of Bologna, Venice and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with the decoration of the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of Napoleon I. to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night, Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command of Prince Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a copy of the Last Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated, for the purpose of getting it rendered in mosaic. The drawing was made from the remains of the original with the aid of copies and the best prints. The mosaic was executed by Raffaelli, and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna. Bossi made another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera. This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great works of sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence. Bossi devoted a large part of his life to the study of the works of Leonardo; and his last work was a series of drawings in monochrome representing incidents in the life of that great master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in black chalk of the Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the Magdalene. In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled _Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci_, which had the merit of greatly interesting Goethe. His other works are _Delle Opinioni di Leonardo intorno alla simmetria de' corpi umani_ (1811), and _Del Tipo dell' arte della pittura_ (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December 1816. A monument by Canova was erected to his memory in the Ambrosian library, and a bust was placed in the Brera.

BOSSU, RENE LE (1631-1680), French critic, was born in Paris on the 16th of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and in 1649 became one of the regular canons of Sainte-Genevieve. He wrote _Parallele des principes de la physique d'Aristote et de celle de Rene Descartes_ (1674), and a _Traite du poeme epique_, highly praised by Boileau, the leading doctrine of which was that the subject should be chosen before the characters, and that the action should be arranged without reference to the personages who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of March 1680.

BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704), French divine, orator and writer, was born at Dijon on the 27th of September 1627. He came of a family of prosperous Burgundian lawyers; his father was a judge of the parliament (a provincial high court) at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent to school with the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the college of Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his natural vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for hard work; fellow-students nicknamed him _Bos suetus aratro_--an ox broken in to the plough. But his abilities became known beyond the college walls. He was taken up by the Hotel de Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic culture and the original home of the _Precieuses_. Here he became the subject of a celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about extempore preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well as in more conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant degree in divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years he spent at Metz, where his father's influence had got him a canonry at the early age of thirteen; to this was now added the more important office of archdeacon. He was plunged at once into the thick of controversy; for nearly half Metz was Protestant, and Bossuet's first appearance in print was a refutation of the Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile the Protestants with the Roman Church became the great object of his dreams; and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where political assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers scarcely born. Not that he reached perfection at a bound. His youthful imagination was unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into a kind of paradoxical subtlety, redolent of the divinity school. But these blemishes vanished when he settled in Paris (1659), and three years later mounted the pulpit of the Chapel Royal.