Part 27

Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the Romans, is a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its origin to the Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric the Vandal surrounded it with walls and for some time made it his capital. En-Nasr (1062-1088), the most powerful of the Berber dynasty of Hammad, made Bougie the seat of his government, and it became the greatest commercial centre of the North African coast, attaining a high degree of civilization. From an old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the heliograph was in common use, special towers, with mirrors properly arranged, being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian merchants of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of the 13th century Bougie passed under the dominion of the Hafsides, and in the 15th century it became one of the strongholds of the Barbary pirates. It enjoyed partial independence under amirs of Hafside origin, but in January 1510 was captured by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The Spaniards strongly fortified the place and held it against two attacks by the corsairs Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his _Africae descriptio_, speaks of the "magnificence" of the temples, palaces and other buildings of the city in his day (c. 1525), but it appears to have fallen into decay not long afterwards. When the French took the town from the Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little more than a few fortifications and ruins. It is said that the French word for a candle is derived from the name of the town, candles being first made of wax imported from Bougie.

BOUGUER, PIERRE (1698-1758), French mathematician, was born on the 16th of February 1698. His father, John Bouguer, one of the best hydrographers of his time, was regius professor of hydrography at Croisic in lower Brittany, and author of a treatise on navigation. In 1713 he was appointed to succeed his father as professor of hydrography. In 1727 he gained the prize given by the Academie des Sciences for his paper "On the best manner of forming and distributing the masts of ships"; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation "On the best method of observing the altitude of stars at sea," the other for his paper "On the best method of observing the variation of the compass at sea." These were published in the _Prix de l'Academie des Sciences_. In 1729 he published _Essai d'optique sur la gradation de la lumiere_, the object of which is to define the quantity of light lost by passing through a given extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun to be 300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made some of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he was made professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded P.L.M. de Maupertuis as associate geometer of the Academie des Sciences. He also invented a heliometer, afterwards perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards promoted in the Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside in Paris. In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator. Ten years were spent in this operation, a full account of which was published by Bouguer in 1749, _Figure de la terre determinee_. His later writings were nearly all upon the theory of navigation. He died on the 15th of August 1758.

The following is a list of his principal works:--_Traite d'optique sur la gradation de la lumiere_ (1729 and 1760); _Entretiens sur la cause d'inclinaison des orbites des planetes_ (1734); _Traite de navire, &c._ (1746, 4to); _La Figure de la terre determinee, &c._ (1749), 4to; _Nouveau traite de navigation, contenant la theorie et la pratique du pilotage_ (1753); _Solution des principaux problemes sur la manoeuvre des vaisseaux_ (1757); _Operations faites pour la verification du degre du meridien entre Paris et Amiens_, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus, Cassini et Pingre(1757).

See J.E. Montucla, _Histoire des mathematiques_ (1802).

BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM (1825-1905), French painter, was born at La Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825. From 1843 till 1850 he went through the course of training at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850 divided the Grand Prix de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set being "Zenobia on the banks of the Araxes." On his return from Rome in 1855 he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences, deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his "Idyll" (1853). He also began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at the Salon. "The Martyr's Triumph," the body of St Cecilia borne to the catacombs, was placed in the Luxembourg after being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in the same year he exhibited "Fraternal Love," a "Portrait" and a "Study." The state subsequently commissioned him to paint the emperor's visit to the sufferers by the inundations at Tarascon. In 1857 Bouguereau received a first prize medal. Nine of his panels executed in wax-painting for the mansion of M. Bartholomy were much discussed--"Love," "Friendship," "Fortune," "Spring," "Summer," "Dancing," "Arion on a Sea-horse," a "Bacchante" and the "Four Divisions of the Day." He also exhibited at the Salon "The Return of Tobit" (now in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed much grace of design, in his "Napoleon," a work of evident labour, he betrayed a lack of ease in the treatment of modern costume. Bouguereau subsequently exhibited "Love Wounded" (1859), "The Day of the Dead" (at Bordeaux), "The First Discord" (1861, in the Club at Limoges), "The Return from the Fields" (a picture in which Theophile Gautier recognized "a pure feeling for the antique"), "A Fawn and Bacchante" and "Peace"; in 1863 a "Holy Family," "Remorse," "A Bacchante teasing a Goat" (in the Bordeaux gallery); in 1864 "A Bather" (at Ghent), and "Sleep"; in 1865 "An Indigent Family," and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 "A First Cause," and "Covetousness," with "Philomela and Procne"; and some decorative work for M. Montlun at La Rochelle, for M. Emile Pereire in Paris, and for the churches of St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866 the large painting of "Apollo and the Muses on Olympus," in the Great Theatre at Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned "Between Love and Riches" (1869), "A Girl Bathing" (1870), "In Harvest Time" (1872), "Nymphs and Satyrs" (1873), "Charity" and "Homer and his Guide" (1874), "Virgin and Child," "Jesus and John the Baptist," "Return of Spring" (which was purchased by an American collector, and was destroyed by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a "Pieta" (1876), "A Girl defending herself from Love" (1880), "Night" (1883), "The Youth of Bacchus" (1884), "Biblis" (1885), "Love Disarmed" (1886), "Love Victorious" (1887), "The Holy Women at the Sepulchre" and "The Little Beggar Girls" (1890), "Love in a Shower" and "First Jewels" (1891). To the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau's best-known pictures. Most of his works, especially "The Triumph of Venus" (1856) and "Charity," are popularly known through engravings. "Prayer," "The Invocation" and "Sappho" have been engraved by M. Thirion, "The Golden Age" by M. Annetombe. Bouguereau's pictures, highly appreciated by the general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of a freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with being too content to revive the formulas and subjects of the antique. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a third-class medal, in 1878 a medal of honour, and the same again in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the Society of French Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled with much energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856, an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of July 1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute, 8th of January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905.

See Ch. Vendryes, _Catalogue illustre des oeuvres de Bouguereau_ (Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, _French Painters; Artistes modernes: dictionnaire illustre des beaux-arts_ (1885); "W. Bouguereau," _Portfolio_ (1875); Emile Bayard, "William Bouguereau," _Monde moderne_ (1897).

BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE (1628-1702), French critic, was born in Paris in 1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen, and was appointed to read lectures on literature in the college of Clermont at Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours. He afterwards became private tutor to the two sons of the duke of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the Romanist refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he returned to Paris, and published in 1671 _Les Entretiens d'Ariste et d'Eugene_, a critical work on the French language, printed five times at Paris, twice at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons, Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &c. The chief of his other works are _La Maniere de bien penser sur les ouvrages d'esprit_ (1687), _Doutes sur la langue francaise_ (1674), _Vie de Saint Ignace de Loyola_ (1679), _Vie de Saint Francois Xavier_ (1682), and a translation of the New Testament into French (1697). His practice of publishing secular books and works of devotion alternately led to the _mot_, _"qu'il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre."_ Bouhours died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.

See Georges Doucieux, _Un Jesuite homme de lettres au dix-septieme siecle: Le pere Bouhours_ (1886). For a list of Bouhours' works see Backer and Sommervogel, _Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus_, i. pp. 1886 et seq.

BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE (1822-1869), French poet and dramatist, was born at Cany, Seine Inferieure, on the 27th of May 1822. He was a schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to whom he dedicated his first work, _Meloenis_ (1851), a narrative poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman manners under the emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled _Fossiles_ attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were included also in _Festons et astragales_ (1859). As a dramatist he secured a success with his first play, _Madame de Montarcy_ (1856), which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odeon; and _Helene Peyron_ (1858) and _L'Oncle Million_ (1860) were also favourably received. But of his other plays, some of them of real merit, only the _Conjuration d'Amboise_ (1866) met with any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th of July 1869, at Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a notice of the author, in 1872.

See also Maxime du Camp, _Souvenirs litteraires_ (1882); and H. de la Ville de Mirmont, _Le Poete Louis Bouilhet_ (1888).

BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR, MARQUIS DE (1739-1800), French general. He served in the Seven Years' War, and as governor in the Antilles conducted operations against the English in the War of American Independence. On his return to France he was named governor of the Three Bishoprics, of Alsace and of Franche-Comte. Hostile to the Revolution, he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and brutally suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy, which had been provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble officers. Then he proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a frontier town where an appeal could be made to other nations against the revolutionists. When this project failed as a result of Louis XVI.'s arrest at Varennes, Bouille went to Russia to induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the king, and then to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in various royalist attempts on France. He left _Memoires sur la Revolution francaise depuis son origine jusqu'a la retraite du duc de Brunswick_ (Paris, 1801).

BOUILLON, formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes, now a small town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 2721. It is most picturesquely situated in the valley under the rocky ridge on which are still the very well preserved remains of the castle of Godfrey of Bouillon (q.v.), the leader of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft. above the sea, but lying in a basin, skirts both banks of the river Semois which is crossed by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round and almost encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of the sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The whole effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant woods makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In the 8th and 9th centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the counts of Ardenne and Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries the family took the higher titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the name of Godfrey (Godefroy) and the fifth of them was the great crusader. He was the son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many commentators into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was born at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle of Baisy near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida d'Ardenne, sister of the fourth Godfrey ("the Hunchback"), and the successful defence of the castle when a mere youth of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat of arms of the future conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress, strong by art as well as position before the invention of modern artillery, has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince bishop of Liege, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the appendage of the bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The bishops appointed "chatelains," one of whom was the celebrated "Wild Boar of the Ardennes," William de la Marck. His descendants made themselves quasi-independent and called themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of Bouillon, and they were even recognized by the king of France. The possession of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of Nijmwegen. From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested in the French family of La Tour d'Auvergne, one of whom (Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of France) had married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race. In 1676 the duke of Crequy seized it in the name of Louis XIV., who in 1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne, whose descendants continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon remained French till 1814, and Vauban called it "the key of the Ardennes." In 1760 the elder Rousseau established here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In 1814-1815, before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an extraordinary attempt was made by Philippe d'Auvergne of the British navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to revive the ancient duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon freely recognized him, and Louis XVIII. was well pleased with the arrangement, but the congress assigned Bouillon to the Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to Germany after Sedan slept one night in the little town, which is a convenient centre for visiting that battlefield.

BOUILLOTTE, a French game of cards, very popular during the Revolution, and again for some years from 1830. Five, four or three persons may play; a piquet pack is used, from which, in case five play, the sevens, when four the knaves, and when three the queens also, are omitted. Counters or chips, as in poker, are used. Before the deal each player "antes" one counter, after which each, the "age" passing, may "raise" the pot; those not "seeing the raise" being obliged to drop out. Three cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth, called the _retourne_, when four play, turned up. Each player must then bet, call, raise or drop out. When a call is made the hands are shown and the best hand wins. The hands rank as follows: _brelan carre_, four of a kind, one being the _retourne_; _simple brelan_, three of a kind, ace being high; _brelan favori_, three of a kind, one being the _retourne_. When no player holds a _brelan_ the hand holding the greatest number of pips wins, ace counting 11, and court cards 10.

BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS (1763-1842), French author, was born near Tours on the 24th of January 1763. At the outbreak of the Revolution he held office under the new government, and had a considerable share in the organization of primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life to devote himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical comedy, _Pierre le Grand_ (1790), for Gretry's music, and the opera, _Les Deux Journees_ (1800), music by Cherubini; also _L'Abbe de l'epee_ (1800), and some other plays; and _Causeries d'un vieillard_ (1807), _Contes a ma fille_ (1809), and _Les Adieux du vieux conteur_ (1835). His _Leonore_ (1798) formed the basis of the libretto of the _Fidelio_ of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris on the 14th of April 1842.

See Bouilly, _Mes recapitulations_ (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouve, _Soixante ans de souvenir_ (lere partie, 1886).

BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI, COMTE DE (1658-1722), French political writer, was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He was educated at the college of Juilly, and served in the army until 1697. He wrote a number of historical works (published after his death), of which the most important were the following: _Histoire de l'ancien gouvernement de la France_ (La Haye, 1727); _Etat de la France, avec des memoires sur l'ancien gouvernement_ (London, 1727); _Histoire de la pairie de France_ (London, 1753); _Histoire des Arabes_ (1731). His writings are characterized by an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was an aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute monarchy on the one hand and popular government on the other. He was at great pains to prove the pretensions of his own family to ancient nobility, and maintained that the government should be entrusted solely to men of his class. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.

BOULANGER, the name of several French artists:--JEAN (1606-1660), a pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an academy at Modena; his cousin JEAN (1607-1680), a celebrated line-engraver; the latter's son MATTHIEU, another engraver; LOUIS (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of Victor Hugo, and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the best-known, GUSTAVE RODOLPHE CLARENCE (1824-1888), a pupil of Paul Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and Roman subjects, and a member of the Institute (1882); and CLEMENT (1805-1842), a pupil of Ingres.

BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE (1837-1891), French general, was born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837. He entered the army in 1856, and served in Algeria, Italy, Cochin-China and the Franco-German War, earning the reputation of being a smart soldier. He was made a brigadier-general in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d'Aumale, then commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger's expressions of gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered against him afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet's cabinet, he erased the name of the due d'Aumale from the army list, as part of the republican campaign against the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes. In 1882 his appointment as director of infantry at the war office enabled him to make himself conspicuous as a military reformer; and in 1884 he was appointed to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled owing to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in politics under the aegis of M. Clemenceau and the Radical party; and in January 1886, when M. Freycinet was brought into power by the support of the Radical leader, Boulanger was given the post of war minister.

By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and common soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity in the most pronounced fashion--notably by his fire-eating attitude towards Germany in April 1887 in connexion with the Schnaebele frontier incident--Boulanger came to be accepted by the mob as the man destined to give France her revenge for the disasters of 1870, and to be used simultaneously as a tool by all the anti-Republican intriguers. His

## action with regard to the royal princes has already been referred to,

but it should be added that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his ingratitude to the duc d'Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the words alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published, and the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel with the baron de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at the moment in dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet's defeat in December 1886 he was retained by M. Goblet at the war office. M. Clemenceau, however, had by this time abandoned his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so inconveniently prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to get rid of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their "brav' general," but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined to take him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand to command an army corps. A Boulangist "movement" was now in full swing. The Bonapartists had attached themselves to the general, and even the comte de Paris encouraged his followers to support him, to the dismay of those old-fashioned Royalists who resented Boulanger's treatment of the duc d'Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the moment--"C'est Boulanger qu'il nous faut"; the general and his black horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and he was urged to play the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the presidency.