Part 40

_Glossary_ of terms not mentioned above:--_Break away_, to get away from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the men clinch. _Break ground_, retire diagonally to right or left. _Catch-weight_, any weight. _Corners_, the opposite angles of the square "ring," in which the boxers rest between the rounds. _Cross-counter_, a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of the adversary as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round that of the opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact. _Clinching_, grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from a clinch one tries to pin the adversary's hands in order to prevent his hitting at close quarters. _Drawing_ an opponent, enticing him by leaving an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter is prepared. _Fiddling_, forward and back movements of the arms at the beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. _Footwork_, the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. _In-fighting_, boxing at very close quarters. _Mark_, the pit of the stomach. _Side-step_, springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being usually followed up by a counter attack. _Timing_, a blow delivered on the enemy's preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.

See _Boxing_, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897); _Boxing_, by Wm. Elder (Spalding's Athletic Library, New York, 1902) (these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing). The article "Boxing," by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _Boxing_, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series, London, 1896); _Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling_, in the Badminton Library (London, 1892).

FRENCH BOXING (_la boxe francaise_) dates from about 1830. It is more like the ancient Greek _pankration_ (see PUGILISM) than is British boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking with the feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed. It is a development of the old sport of _savate_, in which the feet, and not the hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate, which was practised especially by roughs, were usually given in some low resort, and there were no respectable teachers. While Paris was restricted to savate, another sport, called _chausson_ or _jeu marseillais_, was practised in the south of France, especially among the soldiers, in which blows of the fist as well as kicks were exchanged, and the kicks were given higher than in savate, in the stomach or even the face. It was an excellent exercise, but could hardly be reckoned a serious means of defence, for the high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of the fist could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows of the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas _pere_ says that Charles Lecour first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with savate. For this purpose he went to England, and took lessons of Adams and Smith, the London boxers. He then returned to Paris, about 1852, and opened a school to teach the sport since called _la boxe francaise_. Around him, and two provincial instructors who came to Paris about this time with similar ideas, there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between 1845 and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development. Among others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour's brother Hubert, who although rather undersized, was quick as lightning, and had an English blow and a French kick that were truly terrible. Charles Ducros was another whose style of boxing, more in the English fashion, but with low kicks about his opponent's shins, made a name for himself. Later came Vigneron, a "strong man," whose style, though slow, was severe in its punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in these fights, and Lecour and Vigneron had to cease giving public exhibitions and devote themselves to teaching. Towards 1862 a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not only very clever with his fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and the author of a treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may be said to have created _la boxe francaise_, which, for defence _at equal weights_, the French claim to be better than the English.

See _L'Art de la boxe francaise et de la canne_, by J. Charlemont (Paris, 1899); _The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence_, by Georges d'Amoric (London, 1898).

BOXWOOD, the wood obtained from the genus _Buxus_, the principal species being the well-known tree or shrub, _B. sempervirens_, the common box, in general use for borders of garden walks, ornamental parterres, &c. The other source of the ordinary boxwood of commerce is _B. balearica_, which yields the variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is grown throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of the south of England), in the southern part of the European continent generally, and extends through Persia into India, where it is found growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas. There has been much discussion as to whether it is a true native of Britain. Writing more than 200 years ago, John Ray, the author of the important _Historia Plantarum_, says, "The Box grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also at Boxwell, on the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in Kent.... It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable." On the other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the north of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows and near cultivation, and it may have been one of the many introductions owed to the Romans. Only a very small proportion of the wood suitable for industrial uses is now obtained in Great Britain. The box is a very slow-growing plant, adding not more than 1-1/2 or 2 in. to its diameter in twenty years, and on an average attaining only a height of 16 ft., with a mean diameter of 10-1/2 in. The leaves of this species are small, oval, leathery in texture and of a deep glossy green colour. _B. balearica_ is a tree of considerable size, attaining to a height of 80 ft., with leaves three times larger than those of the common box. It is a native of the islands of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor, and around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the chief source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce by way of Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses a delicate yellow colour; it is very dense in structure and has a fine uniform grain, which has given it unique value for the purposes of the wood-engraver. A large amount is used in the manufacture of measuring rules, various mathematical instruments, flutes and other musical instruments, as well as for turning into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a favourite wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.

BOYACA, or Bojaca, an inland department of Colombia, bounded by the departments of Santander and Cundinamarca on the N., W. and S., and the republic of Venezuela on the E., and having an area of 33,321 sq. m., including the Casanare territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The department is very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals. The famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of Boyaca. The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in the Eastern Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool, temperate climate, though only 5-1/2 deg. N. of the equator. It was an important place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one of the Indian towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery of America. Other towns of note in the department are Chiquinquira (20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso (10,787), and Boyaca (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar defeated the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.

BOYAR (Russ. _boyarin_, plur. _boyare_), a dignity of Old Russia conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the boyars were the intimate friends and confidential advisers of the Russian prince, the superior members of his _druzhina_ or bodyguard, his comrades and champions. They were divided into classes according to rank, most generally determined by personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the "oldest," "elder" and the "younger" boyars. At first the dignity seems to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably, hereditary. At a later day the boyars were the chief members of the prince's _duma_, or council, like the _senatores_ of Poland and Lithuania. Their further designation of _luchshie lyudi_ or "the best people" proves that they were generally richer than their fellow subjects. So long as the princes, in their interminable struggles with the barbarians of the Steppe, needed the assistance of the towns, "the best people" of the cities and of the _druzhina_ proper mingled freely together both in war and commerce; but after Yaroslav's crushing victory over the Petchenegs in 1036 beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart, and a political and economical difference between the members of the princely _druzhina_ and the aristocracy of the towns becomes discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more exclusively to commerce, while the _druzhina_ asserts the privileges of an exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the land. Still later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes were established, the boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown court aristocracy with the exclusive privilege of possessing land and serfs. Hence their title of _dvoryane_ (courtiers), first used in the 12th century. On the other hand there was no distinction, as in Germany, between the _Dienst Adel_ (nobility of service) and the simple _Adel_. The Russian boyardom had no corporate or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely local (the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration from one prince to another at will, which prevented the formation of a settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not determine but only facilitated the attainment of high rank, e.g. the son of a boyar was not a boyar born, but could more easily attain to boyardom, if of superior personal merit. It was reserved for Peter the Great to transform the _boyarstvo_ or boyardom into something more nearly resembling the aristocracy of the West.

See Alexander Markevich, _The History of Rank-priority in the Realm of Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries_ (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888); V. Klyuchevsky, _The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia_ (Russ.) (Moscow, 1888). (R. N. B.)

BOY-BISHOP, the name given to the "bishop of the boys" (_episcopus puerorum_ or _innocentium_, sometimes _episcopus scholariorum_ or _chorestarum_), who, according to a custom very wide-spread in the middle ages, was chosen in connexion with the festival of Holy Innocents. For the origin of the curious authority of the boy-bishop and of the rites over which he presided, see FOOLS, FEAST OF. In England the boy-bishop was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the patron of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents' day (December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full bishop's robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades dressed as priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people. At Salisbury the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical patronage during his episcopate, and could make valid appointments. The boy and his colleagues took possession of the cathedral and performed all the ceremonies and offices except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to the cathedrals, the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several ecclesiastical councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council of Basel in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily suppressed. In England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in 1542, revived by Mary in 1552 and finally abolished by Elizabeth. On the continent it survived longest in Germany, in the so-called _Gregoriusfest_, said to have been founded by Gregory IV. in 828 in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A school-boy was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two boy-deacons and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church, where, after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he preached. At Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.

See Brand, _Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain_ (1905); Gasquet, _Parish Life in Medieval England_ (1906); Du Cange, _Glossarium_ (London, 1884), s.v. "Episcopus puerorum."

BOYCE, WILLIAM (1710-1779), English musical composer, the son of a cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of February 1710. As a chorister in St Paul's he received his early musical education from Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene, and he afterwards studied the theory of music under Dr Pepusch. In 1734, having become organist of Oxford chapel, Vere Street, Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne's masque of _Peleus and Thetis_ to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was appointed organist of St Michael's church, Cornhill, and in the same year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote the music for John Lockman's oratorio _David's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan_. In 1737 he was appointed to conduct the meetings of the three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester and Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata _Solomon_, in which occurs the favourite song "Softly rise, O southern breeze." In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit of his setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry Pelham, duke of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he became organist of All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street. A musical setting to _The Chaplet_, an entertainment by Moses Mendez, was Boyce's most successful achievement in this year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden's _Secular Masque_ and in 1751 set another piece (_The Shepherd's Lottery_) by Mendez. He became master of the king's band in succession to Greene in 1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal organist to the chapel royal. As an ecclesiastical composer Boyce ranks among the best representatives of the English school. His two church services and his anthems, of which the best specimens are _By the Waters of Babylon_ and _O, Where shall Wisdom be found_, are frequently performed. It should also be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and choruses for Purcell's _Te Deum_ and _Jubilate_, which the earlier musician had composed for the St Cecilia's day of 1694. Boyce did this in his capacity of conductor at the annual festivals of the Sons of the Clergy at St Paul's cathedral, an office which he had taken in succession to Greene. His twelve trios for two violins and a bass were long popular. One of his most valuable services to musical art was his publication in three volumes quarto of a work on _Cathedral Music_. The collection had been begun by Greene, but it was mainly the work of Boyce. The first volume appeared in 1760 and the last in 1778. On the 7th of February 1779 Boyce died from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of St Paul's cathedral.

BOYCOTT, the refusal and incitement to refusal to have commercial or social dealings with any one on whom it is wished to bring pressure. As merely a form of "sending to Coventry" or (in W.E. Gladstone's phrase) "exclusive dealing," boycotting may be, from a legal point of view, unassailable, and as such has frequently been justified by its original political inventors. But in practice it has usually taken the form of what is undoubtedly an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all and sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse. The word was first used in Ireland, and was derived from the name of Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897), agent for the estates of the earl of Erne in Co. Mayo. For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, Captain Boycott had his life threatened, his servants compelled to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters intercepted and his food supplies interfered with. It took a force of 900 soldiers to protect the Ulster Orangemen ("Emergency Men") who succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and mobbed in the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The system of boycotting was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist "Plan of Campaign," and was dealt with under the Crimes Act of 1887. The term soon came into common English use, and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans, Dutch and Russians. In the United States this method of "persuasion" was taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who refused their demands being brought to terms by a combination to refuse to buy his product or do his work, or to deal with any who did. Various cases have occurred in America in which labour organizations have pronounced such a boycott against a firm; and its illegal nature has been established in the law-courts, notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company v. The American Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters' Union (February 1908) in the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held by the U.S. Supreme Court to be a violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust law.

BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825-1899), Scottish author and divine, was born at Auchinleck manse in Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He studied at King's College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the idea of practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however, he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the Scottish ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Ayr. He served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr, Kirkpatrick-Irongray near Dumfries, St Bernard's, Edinburgh, and finally, in 1865, became minister of the first charge at St Andrews. Here he advocated an improved ritual in the Scottish church, his action resulting in the appointment by the general assembly of a committee, with Boyd as convener, to prepare a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of the general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the 1st of March 1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and talker, and his desultory essays have very much of the charm of his conversation. Among his numerous publications may be specially mentioned the two works (each in three series), _Recreations of a Country Parson_ (1859, 1861 and 1878), and _Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson_ (1862-1865 and 1875); he also wrote _Twenty-five Years at St Andrews_ (1892), and _St Andrews and Elsewhere_ (1894). He was familiarly known to the public as a writer by his initials "A.K.H.B."

BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman, was a son of Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old and distinguished family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd, had fought with Wallace and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was created a peer about 1454, was one of the regents of Scotland during the minority of James III., but, in 1466, with some associates he secured the person of the young king and was appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental in reforming some religious foundations; he arranged the marriage between James III. and Margaret, daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and Norway, and secured the cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway. However, when in 1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and justiciary for himself, and the hand of the king's sister Mary, with the title of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became too strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to death. He escaped to England, and the date of his death is unknown. His brother and assistant, Sir Alexander Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of November 1469.

Boyd's son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his father was overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that of bringing the king's bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then, warned by his wife, escaped to the continent of Europe. He is mentioned very eulogistically in one of the Paston Letters, but practically nothing is known of his subsequent history.

Lord Boyd's grandson Robert (d. c. 1550), a son of Alexander Boyd, was confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours of his grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the 3rd Lord Boyd. His son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590), took a prominent part in Scottish politics during the troubled time which followed the death of James V. in 1542. At first he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his views changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary, queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside in 1568. During the queen's captivity he was often employed on diplomatic errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her favour, and he was suspected of participation in the murder of the regent Murray. He enjoyed a high and influential position under the regent James Douglas, earl of Morton, but was banished in 1583 for his share in the seizure of King James VI., a plot known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to France, but was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd of January 1590.

William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of Kilmarnock in 1661, and this nobleman's grandson William, the 3rd earl (d. 1717), was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and fought for George I. during the rising of 1715. His son William, the 4th earl (1704-1746), was educated in the same principles, but in 1745, owing either to a personal affront or to the influence of his wife or to his straitened circumstances he deserted George II. and joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. The 4th earl fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he was made prisoner, and was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The title of earl of Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.

BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated at the universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for many years a teacher in the Protestant college of Saumur in France, but returned to Scotland in 1621, to escape the Huguenot persecution. In 1623 he was appointed minister of the Barony church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the university in 1634, 1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the half of his fortune, a sum amounting to L20,000 Scots, besides his library and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that he made the printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and other Biblical narratives a condition of the reception of his grant to the university is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch Covenanter, and though for a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell, afterwards became friendly with him. His best-known works are _The Battel of the Soul in Death_ (1629), of which a new edition, with a biography by G. Neil, was published in Glasgow in 1831; _Zion's Flowers_--often called "Boyd's Bible" (1644); _Four Letters of Comfort_ (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).