part 2

, for the documents showing the discussion of the junta of Filipinos at Hongkong in February and May, 1898, relative to the Biak-na-bató money payments and the obligations thereby contracted toward the Spanish government. When the Philippine Insurgent Records now in manuscript in the War Department, edited by Captain J. R. M. Taylor, are published, all the captured documents on this and later matters will be brought together.

[159] The same as has frequently been cited as the program of reforms promised by Primo de Rivera, or even as being contained in an actual treaty. Such statements have usually been reproduced from Foreman or directly from insurgent proclamations. It is notable that in these (e.g., that of the La Junta Patriótica, Hongkong, April, 1898) it is only declared that Primo de Rivera "promised" these reforms, and that he himself would remain in the Philippines during a three-year "armistice," as a guarantee that the reforms would be carried out.

[160] The document cited by Foreman (2nd ed., pp. 546-547; 3rd ed., pp. 397-398), read in the Cortes in 1898, was not the final agreement and the terms of payment are incorrect. It is either spurious, or was superseded by the document, number 5 (of the same date) published in the Congressional Record, ut supra. This appears to have been the only document in Aguinaldo's possession bearing the signature of Primo de Rivera, and it is merely a program prescribing the movements of the rebel chiefs from December 14 on, terms of payments, surrender of arms, amnesty, etc.

[161] Memoria, p. 125, cablegram of October 7, 1896.

[162] A slightly modified copy of this appeal is quoted by Primo de Rivera (Memoria, pp. 140-141), and in Senate Document no. 208, pt. 2, pp. 2, 3. The writer has a copy taken from one of the originals.

[163] Pardo de Tavera remarks (Rept. Phil. Comm., 1900, ii, p. 396) that someone "forgot he had this sum of money in his pocket."

[164] Paterno has apparently given to Foreman a partial version of the transaction for the latter's 1906 edition. Therein Foreman comes around to imply that there was, after all, no "treaty" about reforms, but he is still very much confused as to the money payments, etc., and almost every sentence contains an inaccuracy. He appears to have seen the Diario de las Sesiones de Cortes, at least for one or two speeches on this subject in 1898, when there were heated debates on Philippine matters in the Cortes, but it is strange he never consulted Primo de Rivera's detailed account of the affair.

[165] It was declared, however, in the press of Spain that Aguinaldo projected a residence in Europe and had started for Paris when Consul-General Pratt found him at Singapore in April, 1898.

[166] The change of Spanish administration in October, 1897, bringing the Liberals again into power, with Moret, who had proposed secularization of education in 1870, as Colonial Minister, was another reason for expecting liberal measures in the Philippines as well as in Cuba. It was this new ministry which urged Primo de Rivera to conclude the Biak-na-bató negotiation speedily. One of the indications that the Biak-na-bató documents in the War Department, above cited, were "doctored" in some particulars is the insertion in Paterno's letter to Aguinaldo of Aug. 9, 1897, of a reference to Moret being Minister; the change of cabinet in Madrid occurred two months later.

[167] See the Memoria, pp. 159-176, on Reforms. In a temperate, judicial way his discussion of the friars, from experience as Governor-General from 1881-83 and during the insurrection, is perhaps the severest arraignment they could receive, above all since it came from a man appointed by a Conservative administration.

[168] See the Memoria, pp. 144-154. The incident is related in various tones by other writers.

[169] See the pamphlets, reprinting articles from two of these periodicals: Juan Caro y Mora, La situación del país (Manila, 1897), series in La Oceanía Española; and El gran problema de las reformas en Filipinas planteado por El Español, periódico diario de Manila (Manila, 1897). These articles appeared while the Biak-na-bató negotiation was pending, and with full official sanction; but they touched the religious question only very cautiously, and mostly to defend the friars. The articles of Caro y Mora especially merit consideration in connection with the study of Spanish administration in its last stage.

[170] See especially El Liberal, of Madrid. The writer has a copy of a broadside dated at Madrid Jan. 26, 1898, Exposición elevada á sa Majestad la Reina Regente sobre la insurrección en Filipinas, by Vital Fité, a Spanish journalist, once provincial governor in the Philippines. It represents friar-rule as the chief grievance, but recites also abuses and defects of administration.

[171] See J. Pellicena y Lopez, Los frailes y los filipinos (Manila, 1901).

[172] An earlier indication of the friars' fear of coming reforms is the pamphlet, Filipinas. Estudios de algunos asuntos de actualidad (Madrid, 1897), by Eduardo Navarro, procurator of Augustinians, who advocates "reform" by means of "a step backward."

[173] As, e.g., does Pellicena y Lopez, in Los frailes y los filipinos, to prove that separation was not the aim of the propagandists. The citation from Del Pilar's Soberanía monacal (paragraph v), is almost identical with the paragraph of the 1888 petition to the Queen, quoted already.

[174] The author of the preliminary report of the Schurman Commission, Nov. 2, 1899, must simply have blindly followed Foreman and must have somewhat misunderstood his Filipino informants, in order to make these remarkable statements (Report, i, pp. 169, 172): "This movement [rebellion of 1896] was in no sense an attempt to win independence, but was merely an attempt to obtain relief from abuses which were rapidly growing intolerable." "Now [June, 1898] for the first time arose the idea of independence [in Aguinaldo's camp]."

[175] A quite sufficient answer, if there were not plenty of others, to Dr. Schurman's statements quoted above is afforded by this passage in a proclamation of Aguinaldo as Magdalo at Old Cavite (Kawit), Oct. 31, 1896 (Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan, pp. 298-302): "The revolutionary committee addresses to all Filipino citizens who love their country a general call to arms for the proclamation of Filipino liberty and independence as [a matter of] right and justice, and the recognition of the new revolutionary government established by the blood of its sons." And, on the same date, in a proclamation outlining a rough revolutionary organization of Cavite province and each of its towns, he says: "Filipinas witnesses today a fact unprecedented in its history: the conquest of its liberty and of its independence, the most noble and lofty of its rights." Yet, in March, 1897, Aguinaldo discussed in the correspondence with the Jesuit superior, as already mentioned, the reforms he thought the country asked, and expressly disclaimed for the revolutionists the aim for independence. So also his proclamations and interviews on leaving for Hongkong after the pact of Biak-na-bató (see La Política de España en Filipinas, viii, pp. 46, 47).

However, in a letter to Fray Tomas Espejo (undated, but written probably in January, 1898), Aguinaldo says: "A great work is this, which demands great sacrifices, followed by the shedding of quantities of blood. But what matters that, for it is very little compared to the sublime and holy end which we hold before ourselves in attempting to take arms against España. For this we have resolved to sacrifice our lives until we shall hear issue from the mouths of our compatriots, the blessed phrase 'All hail, Filipinas! forever separated from España and conquered through the heroism of their inhabitants.'" (La Política de España, viii, p. 44).--Eds.

[176] See Sastrón's account of Biak-na-bató in chapters v and vi of his Insurrección en Filipinas for some fragments of documents on this subject.

[177] A royal decree of Jan. 22, 1784, by Carlos III, declared the ex-Jesuits competent to acquire and hold property; and, in the case of those secular coadjutors who had married, to bequeath their property to their heirs. That monarch died in 1788; and was succeeded by his eldest son, as Carlos IV. In Oct. 1797, the government learned that the Spanish ex-Jesuits were determined to return to Spain, on account of the persecutions and even death which menaced them in the Genoese territories, owing to a change in the government there, and that some of them had already reached the Spanish ports; it therefore decided that they should be allowed to remain in the country, but must live in certain abandoned convents. The Jesuits objected to this, and finally the government permitted them (1798) to retire freely to the homes of their families or into any convents they might choose, save that they were not allowed to reside in Madrid or other royal seats. "Many ex-Jesuits returned to their fatherland, and others decided to remain in Italia; but this situation did not last long, for in the year 1801 another decree was issued condemning them anew to proscription." Orders were given that within one week all Jesuits should leave their homes and present themselves at Alicante or Barcelona, where new orders would be given them. Some fathers advanced in years were allowed to remain in Spain; but all the rest were for the second time shipped to Italy, where they suffered great hardship. In 1808 the Spanish government felt more leniently toward these unfortunate exiles, considering, moreover, the difficulty of furnishing their pensions, and the fact that all those moneys were thus taken out of Spain to foreign countries, to find their way ultimately into the hands of her enemies; and a royal decree by Fernando VII, dated Nov. 15, 1808, granted permission to those Jesuits who desired to return to Spain, with the same pension which they had been receiving. After the war between Spain and France was ended, urgent requests were made to Fernando VII by various personages prominent in ecclesiastical, educational, and municipal affairs that he would reëstablish in his dominions the Society of Jesus; and permission was given by a royal decree dated May 9, 1815, for the Jesuits to have houses in the towns and cities which had asked for them. A year later, after various preparations for this change had been made by the government, another decree extended the reëstablishment to all the towns where the Jesuits had formerly had their institutions. "In virtue of this, all the Spanish Jesuits who were residing in Italy returned to España, at the expense of the court. All these decisions were adopted in España in fulfilment of the bull of Pius VII dated Aug. 7, 1814, Solicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, by which the Jesuits were reëstablished in all the Catholic countries--that of Clement XIV, which decreed the extinction of the order, being thereby annulled. [177A] Not five years had passed after the reëstablishment of the Society of Jesus in España when, the revolution of 1820 having been successful, the Cortes assembled; and the Spanish monarch, by decree of September 6 in that same year, again suppressed the [Jesuit] institute, together with the other monastic orders, allowing the Jesuits, however, liberty to reside in España. Fernando communicated to his Holiness the above decision, and Pius VII replied in a letter of September 15, expressing the displeasure with which he had received the tidings; but in 1823, the constitutional government having been destroyed, the regency issued a decree on June 11, reëstablishing the Society and the rest of the regular orders in the same condition in which they were before March 7, 1820. Fernando VII died on Sept. 29, 1833, and the civil war began; and on July 17, 1834, occurred the lamentable massacre [177B] of the Jesuits and other religious. By royal decree of July 4, 1835, the Society of Jesus was anew declared extinguished; and its property was ordered to be sold, in order to apply the product thereof to the extinction of the public debt. In spite of this decision, the Jesuits remained established in España; and it was necessary, in the last revolutionary period, to issue the decree of Oct. 12, 1868, suppressing the Society of Jesus in the Peninsula and the adjacent islands; and commanding that within the space of three days all their colleges and institutions should be closed, and possession be taken of their temporalities in the form provided on this point by the royal decree of July 4, 1835. To these provisions were added this, that the individuals of the suppressed Society might not again reunite in a body or a community, nor wear the garb of the order, nor be in any way subordinate to the superiors of the order who existed either within or without España, those who were not ordained in sacris remaining subject in all matters to the ordinary civil jurisdiction. But the realization of this measure was ephemeral; for when the constitution of June 5, 1869, was published, the right of every person was declared--and repeated in the constitution of June 30, 1876--to associate with others for all the purposes in human life which are not opposed to public morals; and, by favor of this liberty, the individuals of the Society of Jesus considered themselves authorized to form an association and found anew colleges and houses in the Spanish dominions."

A brief of Pope Leo XIII, dated July 13, 1886, finally reëstablished the Society of Jesus throughout the world, and abrogated that of Clement XIV which in 1773 suppressed the order. The pope took occasion to express this permission in the warmest and most forcible terms; and "the rehabilitation of the Society of Jesus could not have been more complete or more satisfactory." "It is pleasant to observe that, after three centuries of strife, the principle of authority has triumphed." (Danvila, Reinado de Carlos III, iii, pp. 613-625.)

[177A] A letter from Mariano Fernandez Folgueras, dated Manila, Aug. 18, 1819, mentions the decrees of Fernando VII by which the Society of Jesus is to be established throughout Spanish dominions, and promises obedience to the royal orders.

[177B] An epidemic of cholera was raging in Madrid, and some malicious persons persuaded the common people that it was caused by the friars having poisoned the water. A mob broke into the Jesuit convents and murdered many of the inmates; and over a hundred friars were killed for the same reason.

[178] This constitution was partly printed at London, at the London Printing Press, No. 25 Khulug St., in both Spanish and Tagálog. Those parts printed (the ends, duties of the members, and the general rules) contain some changes from Rizal's MS. Preceding the constitution proper is the membership pledge to the Liga. It is as follows: "Number ... To ... of ... I ... of ... years of age, of ... state, profession ..., as a chosen son of Filipinas, declare under formal oath that I know and entirely understand the ends aimed at by the Liga Filipina, whose text appears on the back of the present. Therefore, I submit myself, and of my own accord petition the chief ... of this province, to admit me as a member and coworker in the same, and for that purpose I am ready to unconditionally lend the necessary proofs that may be demanded of me, in testimony of my sincere adhesion!" The ends of this printed text are the same as those of the MS. The motto is the same, and there is also a place for a countersign. The duties of the members are somewhat changed, the changes being as follows: "1. He shall pay two pesos for one single time, as an entrance fee, and fifty centimos as monthly fee, from the month of his entrance. 2. With the consciousness of what he owes to his fatherland, for whose prosperity and through the welfare that he ought to covet for his parents, children, brothers and sisters, and the beloved beings who surround him, he must sacrifice every personal interest, and blindly and promptly obey every command, every order, verbal or written, which emanates from his Council or from the Provincial Chief. 3. He shall immediately inform, and without the loss of a moment, the authorities of his Council of whatever he sees, notes, or hears that constitutes danger for the tranquillity of the Liga Filipina or anything touching it. He shall earnestly endeavor to be sincere, truthful, and minute in all that he shall have to communicate. 4. He shall observe the utmost secrecy in regard to the deeds, acts, and decisions of his Council and of the Liga Filipina in general from the profane, even though they be his parents, brothers and sisters, children, etc., at the cost of his own life, for this is the means by which the member will obtain what he most desires in life." Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are the same. The general rules of the printed version are as follows: "In order that the candidate may be admitted as a member to the Liga Filipina, he must possess morality, good habits, not have been proceeded against justifiably as a robber, shall not be a gambler, drunkard, or libertine. The candidate must solicit and petition his entrance from a member; and the latter shall communicate it to his Fiscal, for the investigations that must be made in regard to his conduct." On Dec. 30, 1903, a monument was erected to Rizal, to his companions, and to other founders of the Liga Filipina by the village of Tondo, on a site given by Timoteo Paez, one of the members of the Liga. On the monument is the following inscription: "Remember [this word in English, the rest in Spanish]. Facing this site and at house No. 176 Ilaya St., Dr. Rizal founded and inaugurated on the night of July 3, 1892, the Liga Filipina, a national secret society, with the assistance and approval of the following gentlemen: Founder, Dr. Rizal; shot. Board of directors--president, Ambrosio Salvador; arrested. Fiscal, Agustin de la Rosa; arrested. Treasurer, Bonifacio Arevalo; arrested. Secretary, Deodato Arellano; first president of the national war Katipunan society; arrested. Members--Andres Bonifacio; supreme head of the Katipunan, who uttered the first warcry against tyranny, August 24, 1896. Mamerto Natividad; seconded, in Nueva Écija, the movement of Andres Bonifacio, August 28, 1896; shot. Domingo Franco; supreme head of the Liga Filipina; shot. Moises Salvador; venerable master of the respected lodge, Balagtas; shot. Numeriano Adriano; first guard of the respected lodge, Balagtas; shot. José A. Dizon; venerable master of the respected lodge, Taliba; shot. Apolinario Mabini; legislator; arrested. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista; first patriot of '68; arrested. Timoteo Lanuza; initiator of the manifestation for the expulsion of the friars in 1888; arrested. Marcelino de Santos; arbitrator and protector of La Solidaridad, the Filipino organ in Madrid; arrested. Paulino Zamora; venerable master of the respected lodge, Lusong; deported. Juan Zulueta; member of the respected lodge, Lusong; died. Doroteo Ongjunco; member of the respected lodge, Lusong; owner of the house. Arcadio del Rosario; orator of the respected lodge, Balagtas; arrested. Timoteo Paez; arrested."--Epifanio de Los Santos.

See Retana's account of the Liga in Nuestro Tiempo for Aug. 10, 1905, pp. 202-211. He says mistakenly that the constitution was printed in Hong-Kong.

[179] This was Fernando Primo de Rivera, whose term ended April 11, 1898.

[180] The Consejo de Ministros is the council formed by the ministers of the various departments, in order to discuss the most important and arduous matters, or for the purpose of working harmoniously in the discharge of their respective duties. The sovereign presides, or the minister chosen as chief of the cabinet, who is called president of the Council of Ministers. These councils are ordinary and extraordinary, according as they are held periodically or when demanded by circumstances. Thus the meetings of the council are analogous to those of the cabinet of the United States. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., v, p. 823.

[181] i.e., "Dumb dogs not able to bark," a portion of Isaias lvi, 10.

[182] The Spanish Cortes is made up of the Senate (Senado) and the congress (congreso), and in them, together with the king, resides the legislative power, according to the constitution of 1876. The present Cortes is the outgrowth of the Cortes formerly assembled by the king before the adoption of the constitution, or rather it is the substitute that has supplanted them; for the inherent principle today is that sovereignty resides in the nation instead of the king. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., v, pp. 1166, 1167.

[183] See ante, pp. 195-201. See also North American Review, August, 1901, "The Katipunan of the Philippines," by Col. L. W. V. Kennon, p. 212; and Primo de Rivera's Memorial.

[184] The original is carbonario, a word used to indicate the member of a secret society, or the society itself. It is from the Italian carbonaro, literally coal or charcoal dealer, and its origin is the secret political sect of Italy, formed early in the nineteenth century, with the avowed purpose of destroying tyranny and establishing freedom.

[185] The first Filipino freemason lodge in the Philippines was founded in Cavite about 1860 by two Spanish naval officers under the name of Luz Filipina. It was established under the auspices of the Gran Oriente Lusitana, and was in correspondence with the Portuguese lodges at Macao and Hong-Kong. Gradually other lodges were established and natives and mestizos were admitted to membership. The "Gran Oriente" of the text is the Spanish division of the order, Spain and Portugal having split into two divisions after 1860. It is claimed by Catholics that the Katipunan was the fighting branch of the masonic order. It is probably true that it borrowed some few things from freemasonry in matters of form, but there the analogy seems to end. For the friar viewpoint of masonry in Spain and the Philippines, see Navarro's Algunos asuntos de actualidad (Madrid, 1897), pp. 221-277; and Pastells's La masonización de Filipinas. Sawyer's account (Inhabitants of the Philippines, pp. 79-81) is very inadequate.

[186] i.e., "It is better to die than to federate."

[187] This passage (1 Machabees, iii, 59), reads in the English Douay version: "For it is better for us to die in battle, than to see the evils of our nation, and of the holies."

[188] i.e., "As long as I am the apostle, I shall honour my ministry," a portion of Romans, xi, 13.

[189] In the Ayer collection is a document dated Manila, January 17, 1888, by one Candido Garcia, a native Filipino, an inhabitant of San Felipe Neri, in which he complains against the friar parish priest Gregorio Chagra, O.S.F., who has endeavored to have him deported as anti-Spanish. The reason of this is because Garcia had complained that the friar disobeyed the law in regard to burials as well as other laws. He also accuses the friars of not wishing to have the Filipinos learn Spanish, as they desire them to have no communication with Spaniards. He thus charges the friars with disobedience and disloyalty.

[190] A brief statement by the pope of errors condemned in 1864, and known under the title Syllabus errorum. It was appended to the encyclical Quanta cura, condemning eighty doctrines, which it calls "the principal errors of our times." These heresies had all previously been pointed out by Pius IX in consistorial allocutions, and encyclical and other apostolic letters. It is a protest against atheism, materialism, and other forms of infidelity. It condemns religious and civil liberty, separation of Church and State, and preëminence of the Church of Rome. See Philip Schaff's Creeds of Christendom (New York, 1877), i, pp. 128-134 and ii, pp. 213-233 (this last the Latin and English text of the Syllabus.)

[191] We have taken the reading of the English Douay version. Translated directly from the Spanish, this verse reads: "If you be reproached for the name of Christ, you will be blessed; for the honor, glory, and virtue of God, and His own spirit rest upon you."

[192] Bartolomé de las Casas or Casaus, who was born in Sevilla in 1474, and died in Madrid, in July, 1569, and because of his great exertions for the Indians called the "apostle of the Indies." Much has been written concerning this romantic and sincere character of early American history. He wrote various books, some of which have been published. Mr. Ayer of Chicago possesses one volume in MS. of his three-volume Historia general de Indias. This history (covering the years 1492-1520) was begun in 1527 and completed in 1559.

[193] Aguinaldo states that after he had been driven to the mountains in May, 1897, he established a republic. See North Amer. Rev., August, 1901, p. 212. See also the constitution of the so-called republic in Constitución política de la Republica Filipina promulgada el dia 22 de Enero de 1899 (1899).

[194] See ante, p. 176.

[195] This is Psalm 34 in the Douay version, but, as here, 35, in the Vulgate, and common English versions. Psalm 9 in the Douay version is equivalent to 9 and 10 in the other versions. After verse 21 in the Douay version is the sub-head "Psalm according to the Hebrews," and the following verses are numbered from unity. The Vulgate has the same heading, but regards the subject-matter as a new psalm.

[196] We follow the Douay version to the word "good" (Psalm 34, 11, and part of 12). The rest of the passage we translate directly, as it has no exact equivalent in this Psalm. The direct translation of the first two clauses of the Spanish is "Unjust witnesses have risen up, and charged me with things of which I am ignorant."

[197] i.e., "Let another praise thee, and not thy own mouth," the first half of Proverbs xxvii, 2.

[198] In the Douay version this verse reads: "For so is the will of God, that by doing well you may put to silence the ignorance of foolish men."

[199] The Douay version reads: "But we renounce the hidden things of dishonesty, not walking in craftiness, nor adulterating the word of God; but by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to every man's conscience, in the sight of God." The last clause above is evidently taken from 2 Cor. i, 12.

[200] A reference to Matthew, v, 13-16.

[201] The first reference is to Psalm cviii, 2 (Douay version) but cxix, common English version. The second reference is to 1 Peter, iii, 16. Neither one is an exact quotation, and hence we translate directly.

[202] The cuadrilleros formerly acted as a police in the Philippines. (See VOL. XVII, p. 333.) The guardia civil or civil guard was created in imitation of the guardia civil of Spain (the most efficient body of police of that country, and analogous to the carabinieri of Italy) in 1869. (See Montero y Vidal, Historia general, iii, p. 494.)

[203] Or robbers. They generally went in bands and had their retreats in the woods and hills.

[204] See Col. L. W. V. Kennon's article in the North Amer. Review, for August, 1901, "The Katipunan of the Philippines." Many other writers speak of this society, but as yet no real authentic account of it has appeared, as we are still too near it.

[205] This was Governor Fernando Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte, who wrote a Memorial on his record in the Philippines, which was published at Madrid in 1898.

[206] A required paper of identification carried by the natives, and for which they were taxed.

[207] This was Pedro Alejandro Paterno.

[208] These three sections are as follows:

45. The entire direction of public schools, in which the youth of Christian states are educated, except (to a certain extent) in the case of episcopal seminaries, may and must pertain to the civil power, and belong to it so far that no other authority whatsoever shall be recognized as having any right to interfere in the discipline of the schools, the arrangement of the studies, the taking of degrees or the choice and approval of the teachers.

47. The best theory of civil society requires that popular schools open to the children of all classes, and, generally, all public institutes intended for instruction in letters and philosophy, and for conducting the education of the young, should be freed from all ecclesiastical authority, government, and interference, and should be fully subject to the civil and political power, in conformity with the will of rulers and the prevalent opinions of the age.

48. This system of instructing youth, which consists in separating it from the Catholic faith and from the power of the Church, and in teaching exclusively, or at least primarily, the knowledge of natural things and the earthly ends of social life alone, may be approved by Catholics.

It must be understood that Pius IX condemns these three sections as the entire eighty of the Syllabus as errors or heresies. (See Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, ii, pp. 224, 225.)

[209] This section or error is as follows:

53. The laws for the protection of religious establishments, and securing their rights and duties, ought to be abolished: nay, more, the civil government may lend its assistance to all who desire to quit the religious life they have undertaken, and break their vows. The government may also suppress religious orders, collegiate churches, and simple benefices, even those belonging to private patronage, and submit their goods and revenues to the administration and disposal of the civil power. (See Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, ii, pp. 226, 227.)

[210] See VOL. LI, pp. 146, 147, note 103; and ante, pp. 83, 84, note 33.

[211] The Código de las siete partidas, so called because divided into seven parts, were compiled by Alfonso the Wise, the work of compilation beginning June 23, 1256, and being concluded probably in 1265. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., xiv, pp. 982, 983.

[212] See Synopsis and extracts of the instructions given to Legazpi in our VOL. II, pp. 89-100.

[213] i.e., "The offscouring;" literally "worthless soul."

[214] i.e., "We are made as the refuse of this world, the offscouring of all even until now," the last part of 1 Cor., iv, 13.

[215] This Memorial is most inadequately published in the Rosary Magazine (a Dominican periodical) for 1900, by Ambrose Colman, O.P. It is translated only in part, the translation often being faulty and giving a wrong meaning, and translation and synopsis not always being sufficiently indicated.

[216] This "notice" does not appear in the copy printed (probably from one of the fifty copies) at the press of Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Rios, Madrid.

[217] A Tagálog word, meaning "that which is in partnership."

[218] Pacto de retrovendendo: "A certain agreement accessory to the contract of purchase and sale, by which the buyer obliges himself to return the thing sold to the seller, the latter returning to the buyer the price which he gave for it, within a certain time, or when the seller shall require it, according to the terms in which the agreement is drawn up." (Diccionario of the Academy, cited by Dominguez.) Cf. the political use of the same phrase in the treaty of Zaragoza (VOL. 1, p. 232).

[219] The word "composition" (Spanish, composición) as here used has "a technical meaning as applied to lands, and may be defined as a method by which the State enabled an individual who held its lands without legal title thereto to convert his mere possession into a perfect right of property by virtue of compliance with the requirements of law. Composition was made in the nature of a compact or compromise between the State and the individual who was illegally holding lands in excess of those to which he was legally entitled, and, by virtue of his compliance with the law, the State conferred on him a good title to the lands that he had formerly held under a mere claim of title." Under Spanish administration, there was great confusion and uncertainty in land-titles; the laws in force were too complicated and slow in operation, and left too much power in the hands of indifferent or mercenary officials. Some benefits were yielded by regulations for the composition of State lands which were in force from 1880 to 1894, and in the latter year more definite and positive provisions were made by royal decree (constituting the "public-land law" in force in the islands when occupied by the United States) for the settlement of uncertain land-titles; but in neither case were the results very satisfactory. The same may be said of the registration system known as the Ley hipotecaria (or mortgage law), which in 1889 was extended to Filipinas. During the period of revolution and war (1896-99) many of the land records were destroyed in the provinces, which further complicated questions of land ownership; and the U. S. Philippine Commission was obliged to make provision for the settlement of these by the "Land Registration Act," which became effective on February 1, 1903. For account of its provisions and mode of operation, see the chapter on "Land Titles" (pp. 127-137) in Official Handbook of the Philippines--where also is presented a more detailed account of the regulations made by the Spanish laws.

[220] At the foot of the last printed page is a note, evidently written by some person in the secretary's office of the Council of Indias (to which body this copy of the decree appears to have been sent), which reads in translation: "It came with a letter from the governor of Philipinas, Don Joseph de Basco y Vargas, dated June 16, 1784, and received at the secretary's office on March 19, 1785." A penciled memorandum on the fly-leaf indicates that it was published at Sampaloc, 1784.

[221] By royal decree of Feb. 26, 1886, the alcaldes-mayor of the provinces were restricted to judicial functions, and in others they were replaced by civil governors.

[222] Bernáldez, in his account (dated 1827) of "Reforms needed in Filipinas" (already presented in our VOL. LI) says of this association (fol. 29): "Although in Manila there is an Economic Society organized to promote public prosperity by means of the industries of the country, composed as it is of miscellaneous members, nominated without [their own] solicitation, and without inclination for that sort of occupation, there is little, if anything, to be expected from the activities of a body which has already gone to pieces once through its own inaction, and has been reëstablished only to comply with the sovereign's command, and not by the activity or encouragement of the citizens of Filipinas themselves."

[223] Evidently referring to the pamphlet, Noticia del origen y hechos notables de la Real Sociedad ... segun sus actas y documentos oficiales (Manila, 1860); but this is a second edition, the first having been issued in 1855.

[224] Probably referring to the book The Lancasterian System of Education, with Improvements, published (Baltimore, 1821) by Joseph Lancaster on his newly-invented educational system (commonly known as the "monitorial"). He was an Englishman, born in 1778, and a member of the Society of Friends; he visited the United States, where he published the above work; and his death occurred in 1838.

[225] See account of this periodical in VOL. LI, p. 48, note 16.

[226] This was Paul de la Gironière, a French surgeon who went to Manila in 1820, and who escaped, almost by a miracle, from the massacre of foreigners by the natives in that year. He married a Spanish lady of Manila, the Marquesa de las Salinas, and spent twenty years in the islands, where he founded a colony at Jala-Jala, and kept a large estate under cultivation, besides performing, at various times, official functions entrusted to him by the Manila government. He returned to France, where he died about 1865. He was author of a book, Aventures d'un gentilhomme breton aux îles Philippines (Paris, 1855), which had considerable vogue, and is regarded as an interesting and in many respects valuable description of the islands, their resources and people, and social conditions there. He also wrote Vingt années aux Philippines (Paris, 1853), of which an English abridgment was published in London soon afterward, called Twenty Years in the Philippines. (See Pardo de Tavera, Biblioteca filipina, pp. 185-186.) An English translation with the same title was published at New York (1854), "revised and extended by the author."

[227] Apparently alluding to the short-lived periodical Precios corrientes de Manila (1639-41); see VOL. LI, p. 71, note 31.

[228] One of the largest and richest towns of the province of Bulacán; and both town and province are renowned for various native manufactures--hats, cigar-cases, piña fabrics, and petates (i.e., mats)--of fine quality, and often very costly. See Jagor's account (Reisen, p. 48) of the manufacture of these cigar-cases at Balivag; the fibers of which they are made are obtained from a certain species of Calamus (rattar), and the cases cost from two to fifty pesos each. It appears that the word petaca comes (as does petate, "mat") from the Mexican word petlatl, meaning "a mat."

[229] "In 1848 were procured from London the steamers 'Magallanes,' 'Elcano,' and 'Reina de Castilla,' which were the first vessels of this class that were seen in Filipinas; and to their excellent services are due the rapid transformation which was wrought in the prosperity of the country, and the repression of the piracies of the Moro Malays." (Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, iii, p. 87.)

[230] In the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla are MS. reports of this society's labors for a number of consecutive years.

[231] Jiguilete (or xiquilite): the name given in India to the indigo shrub. The cerpentaria here mentioned is not identifiable, unless it be some other species of Indigofera, several of which are cultivated in Filipinas. The "Vanilla" is presumably a plant described by Blanco, which he calls Vanilla ovalis, greatly resembling V. aromatica, except that it lacked the fragrant odor of the latter.

[232] See Jagor's chapter (Reisen, pp. 309, 310) on the opium monopoly which was established in Filipinas on Jan. 1, 1844, and later continued by the Spanish government, after much discussion and controversy. Various arguments of policy, health, and morality were brought forward on both sides, but that which finally triumphed was evidently the one thus stated by the governor-general, "The revenue from opium is indispensable for our treasury." The use of opium in the islands was intended for the Chinese residing there (being forbidder to the Indians and mestizos), and then only under certain restrictions; but Jagor found that, besides the 478 public opium-joints--which were "actual hotbeds of immorality, and always full of Chinese"--hundreds of individuals were allowed, contrary to the law and to the intentions of the government, to smoke opium in their own houses. The revenue from opium amounted in 1860 to 98,000 escudos; in the fiscal year of 1865-66, to 140,000; and in 1866-67, to 207,000. Montero y Vidal cites in Archipiélago filipino (published in 1886), the tariff schedule of 1874, "The importation of opium is prohibited; and only that will be allowed which, in small quantities, is destined for the pharmacies, and all that which may be imported by the lessees of the right to sell this drug to whom the Treasury has granted that exclusive right in the provinces there--in which case it will pay duty according to item 80" (that is, at eight per cent).

[233] A tree found in China (Stillingia sebifera), which yields a substance resembling tallow, which is used for the same purpose as the latter.

[234] Regarding the gutta-percha industry, see Official Handbook of the Philippines, pp. 91-95.

[235] The water supply of Manila is taken from the Mariquina River, eight miles from the city, being pumped thence to a reservoir halfway to Manila, from which it is distributed. "The works are owned by the municipality, having been largely paid for with a fund, the proceeds of a legacy, left by the will of a citizen, Francisco Carriedo, who died in 1743." (Official Handbook, p. 269.) This was one of the obras pias founded by a public-spirited citizen, Francisco Carriedo y Peredo; he was born in the town of Santander in 1690, and died at the age of 53, "having during his life conferred immense benefits on Filipinas." (Vindel, Catálogo, i, pp. 155, 156.)

[236] The botanical garden of Manila was created by Governor Norzagaray (by decree of Sept. 13, 1858); and, as a result of this, a royal decree of May 29, 1861, founded there a school o£ botany and agriculture, under the control of the governor of the islands and immediate supervision of the Economic Society. The locality called Campo de Arroceros ["the rice-dealers' field"] was set apart as a botanical garden, for the practical work of that school, with approval of the expenditures incurred by the governor for the establishment of both institutions; and the sum of 6,000 pesos a year was allowed for their maintenance. (In 1894-95, the budget included for the expenses of these two establishments the sum of 37,294 pesos.) See Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, iii, pp. 260, 261, 317, 318.

[237] Worcester says of the Ifugaos (ut supra, p. 829): "Their agriculture is little short of wonderful, and no one who has seen their dry stone dams, their irrigating ditches running for miles along precipitous hillsides and even crossing the faces of cliffs, and their irrigated terraces extending for thousands of feet up the mountain sides, can fail to be impressed (Pl. xxvi, xxxvii). When water must be carried across cliffs so hard and so broken that the Ifugaos cannot successfully work the stone with their simple tools, they construct and fasten in place great troughs made from the hollowed trunks of trees, and the same procedure is resorted to when cañons must be crossed, great ingenuity being displayed in building the necessary supporting trestle-work of timber. The nearly perpendicular walls of their rice paddies are usually built of stone, although near Quiangan, where the country is comparatively open and level, walls of clay answer the same purpose, and are used. The stone retaining walls are sometimes forty feet high, and so steep are the mountain sides that the level plots gained by building such walls and filling in behind them are often not more than twenty or thirty feet wide. I know of no more impressive example of primitive engineering than the terraced mountain sides of Nueva Vizcaya, beside which the terraced hills of Japan sink into insignificance."