Part 18
Three other species are found in Africa--_T. rupicola_, _T. rupicoloides_ and _T. alopex_--the first a common bird in the Cape, while the others occur in the interior. Some of the islands of the Ethiopian region have peculiar species of kestrel, as the _T. newtoni_ of Madagascar, _T. punctatus_ of Mauritius and _T. gracilis_ of the Seychelles; while, on the opposite side, the kestrel of the Cape Verde Islands has been separated as _T. neglectus_.
The _T. sparverius_, commonly known in Canada and the United States as the "sparrow-hawk," is a beautiful little bird. Various attempts have been made to recognize several species, more or less in accordance with locality, but the majority of ornithologists seem unable to accept the distinctions which have been elaborated chiefly by Bowdler Sharpe in his _Catalogue_ and R. Ridgway (_North American Birds_, iii. 150-175), the former of whom recognizes six species, while the latter admits but three--_T. sparverius_, _T. leucophrys_ and _T. sparverioides_--with five geographical races of the first, viz. the typical _T. sparverius_ from the continent of North America except the coast of the Gulf of Mexico; _T. australis_ from the continent of South America except the North Atlantic and Caribbean coasts; _T. isabellinus_, inhabiting continental America from Florida to Fr. Guiana; _T. dominicensis_ from the Lesser Antilles as far northwards as St Thomas; and lastly _T. cinnamominus_ from Chile and western Brazil. _T. leucophrys_ is said to be from Haiti and Cuba; and _T. sparverioides_ peculiar to Cuba only. This last has been generally allowed to be a good species, though Dr Gundlach, the best authority on the birds of that island, in his _Contribucion á la Ornitologia Cubana_ (1876), will not allow its validity. More recently it was found (Ibis, 1881, pp. 547-564) that _T. australis_ and _T. cinnamominus_ cannot be separated, that Ridgway's _T. leucophrys_ should properly be called _T. dominicensis_, and his _T. dominicensis T. antillarum_; while Ridgway has recorded the supposed occurrence of _T. sparverioides_ in Florida. Of other kestrels _T. moluccensis_ is widely spread throughout the islands of the Malay Archipelago, while _T. cenchroides_ seems to inhabit the whole of Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania (_Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania_, 1875, pp. 7, 8). No kestrel is found in New Zealand, but an approach to the form is made by the very peculiar _Hieracidea_ (or _Harpe_) _novae-zelandiae_ (of which a second race or species has been described, _H. brunnea_ or _H. ferox_), the "sparrow-hawk," "quail-hawk" and "bush-hawk" of the colonists--a bird of much higher courage than any kestrel, and perhaps exhibiting the more generalized and ancestral type from which both kestrels and falcons may have descended. (A. N.)
FOOTNOTE:
[1] Other English names are windhover and standgale (the last often corrupted into stonegale and stannell).
KESWICK, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, served by the joint line of the Cockermouth Keswick & Penrith, and London & North-Western railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4451. It lies in the northern part of the Lake District, in an open valley on the banks of the river Greta, with the mountain of Skiddaw to the north and the lovely lake of Derwentwater to the south. It is much frequented by visitors as a centre for this famous district--for boating on Derwentwater and for the easy ascent of Skiddaw. Many residences are seen in the neighbourhood, and the town as a whole is modern. Fitz Park, opened in 1887, is a pleasant recreation ground. The town-hall contains a museum of local geology, natural history, &c. In the parish church of Crosthwaite, ¾ m. distant, there is a monument to the poet Southey. His residence, Greta Hall, stands at the end of the main street, close by the river. Keswick is noted for its manufacture of lead pencils; and the plumbago (locally wad) used to be supplied from mines in Borrowdale. Char, caught in the neighbouring lakes, are potted at Keswick in large quantities and exported.
KESWICK CONVENTION, an annual summer reunion held at the above town for the main purpose of "promoting practical holiness" by meetings for prayer, discussion and personal intercourse. It has no denominational limits, and is largely supported by the "Evangelical" section of the Church of England. The convention, started in a private manner by Canon Harford-Battersby, then vicar of Keswick, and Mr Robert Wilson in 1874, met first in 1875, and rapidly grew after the first few years, both in numbers and influence, in spite of attacks on the alleged "perfectionism" of some of its leaders and on the novelty of its methods. Its members take a deep interest in foreign missions.
In the _History of the C.M.S._, vol. iii. (by Eugene Stock), the missionary influence of the "Keswick men" in Cambridge and elsewhere may be readily traced. See also _The Keswick Convention_: its _Message, its Method and its Men_, edited by C. F. Harford (1906).
KET (or KETT), ROBERT (d. 1549), English rebel, is usually called a tanner, but he certainly held the manor of Wymondham in Norfolk. With his brother William he led the men of Wymondham in their quarrel with a certain Flowerden, and having thus come into prominence, he headed the men of Norfolk when they rose in rebellion in 1549 owing to the hardships inflicted by the extensive enclosures of common lands and by the general policy of the protector Somerset. A feast held at Wymondham in July 1549 developed into a riot and gave the signal for the outbreak. Leading his followers to Norwich, Ket formed a camp on Mousehold Heath, where he is said to have commanded 16,000 men, introduced a regular system of discipline, administered justice and blockaded the city. He refused the royal offer of an amnesty on the ground that innocent and just men had no need of pardon, and on the 1st of August 1549 attacked and took possession of Norwich. John Dudley, earl of Warwick, marched against the rebels, and after his offer of pardon had been rejected he forced his way into the city, driving its defenders before him. Then, strengthened by the arrival of some foreign mercenaries, he attacked the main body of the rebels at Dussindale on the 27th of August. Ket's men were easily routed by the trained soldiery, and Robert and William Ket were seized and taken to London, where they were condemned to death for treason. On the 7th of December 1549 Robert was executed at Norwich, and his body was hanged on the top of the castle, while that of William was hanged on the church tower at Wymondham.
See F. W. Russell, _Kett's Rebellion_ (1859), and J. A. Froude, _History of England_, vol. iv. (London, 1898).
KETCH, JOHN (d. 1686), English executioner, who as "Jack Ketch" gave the nickname for nearly two centuries to his successors, is believed to have been appointed public hangman in the year 1663. The first recorded mention of him is in _The Plotters Ballad, being Jack Ketch's incomparable Receipt for the Cure of Traytorous Recusants and Wholesome Physick for a Popish Contagion_, a broadside published in December 1672. The execution of William, Lord Russell, on the 21st of July 1683 was carried out by him in a clumsy way, and a pamphlet is extant which contains his "Apologie," in which he alleges that the prisoner did not "dispose himself as was most suitable" and that he was interrupted while taking aim. On the scaffold, on the 15th of July 1685, the duke of Monmouth, addressing Ketch, referred to his treatment of Lord Russell, the result being that Ketch was quite unmanned and had to deal at least five strokes with his axe, and finally use a knife, to sever Monmouth's head from his shoulders. In 1686 Ketch was deposed and imprisoned at Bridewell, but when his successor, Pascha Rose, a butcher, was, after four months in the office, hanged at Tyburn, Ketch was reappointed. He died towards the close of 1686.
KETCHUP, also written _catsup_ and _katchup_ (said to be from the Chinese _kôe-chiap_ or _kê-tsiap_, brine of pickled fish), a sauce or relish prepared principally from the juice of mushrooms and of many other species of edible fungi, salted for preservation and variously spiced. The juices of various fruits, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, and especially green walnuts, are used as a basis of ketchup, and shell-fish ketchup, from oysters, mussels and cockles, is also made; but in general the term is restricted to sauces having the juice of edible fungi as their basis.
KETENES, in chemistry, a group of organic compounds which may be considered as internal anhydrides of acetic acid and its substitution derivatives. Two classes may be distinguished: the aldo-ketenes, including ketene itself, together with its mono-alkyl derivatives and carbon suboxide, and the keto-ketenes which comprise the dialkyl ketenes. The aldo-ketenes are colourless compounds which are not capable of autoxidation, are polymerized by pyridine or quinoline, and are inert towards compounds containing the groupings C:N and C:O. The keto-ketenes are coloured compounds, which undergo autoxidation readily, form ketene bases on the addition of pyridine and quinoline, and yield addition compounds with substances containing the C:N and C:O groupings. The ketenes are usually obtained by the action of zinc on ethereal or ethyl acetate solutions of halogen substituted acid chlorides or bromides. They are characterized by their additive reactions: combining with water to form acids, with alcohols to form esters, and with primary amines to form amides.
_Ketene_, CH2:CO, was discovered by N. T. M. Wilsmore (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1907, vol. 91, p. 1938) among the gaseous products formed when a platinum wire is electrically heated under the surface of acetic anhydride. It is also obtained by the action of zinc on bromacetyl bromide (H. Staudinger, _Ber._ 1908, 41, p. 594). At ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but it may be condensed to a liquid and finally solidified, the solid melting at -151° C. It is characterized by its penetrating smell. On standing for some time a brown-coloured liquid is obtained, from which a colourless liquid boiling at 126-127° C., has been isolated (Wilsmore, ibid., 1908, 93, p. 946). Although originally described as acetylketen, it has proved to be a cyclic compound (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4908). It is soluble in water, the solution showing an acid reaction, owing to the formation of aceto-acetic acid, and with alkalis it yields acetates. It differs from the simple ketenes in that it is apparently unacted upon by phenols and alcohols. _Dimethyl ketene_, (CH3)2C:CO1 obtained by the
## action of zinc on [alpha]-brom-isobutyryl bromide, is a yellowish
coloured liquid. At ordinary temperatures it rapidly polymerizes (probably to a tetramethylcylobutanedione). It boils at 34° C (750 mm.) (Staudinger, Ber. 1905, 38, p. 1735; 1908, 41, p. 2208). Oxygen rapidly converts it into a white explosive solid. _Diethyl ketene_, (C2H5)2C:CO, is formed on heating diethylmalonic anhydride (Staudinger, ibid.). _Diphenyl ketene_, (C6H5)2C:CO, obtained by the
## action of zinc on diphenyl-chloracetyl chloride, is an orange-red
liquid which boils at 146° C. (12 mm.). It does not polymerize. Magnesium phenyl bromide gives triphenyl vinyl alcohol.
KETI, a seaport of British India, in Karachi district, Sind, situated on the Hajamro branch of the Indus. Pop. (1901), 2127. It is an important seat of trade, where seaborne goods are transferred to and from river boats.
KETONES, in chemistry, organic compounds of the type R·CO·R´, where R, R´ = alkyl or aryl groups. If the groups R and R´ are identical, the ketone is called a _simple_ ketone, if unlike, a _mixed_ ketone. They may be prepared by the oxidation of secondary alcohols; by the addition of the elements of water to hydrocarbons of the acetylene type RC CH; by oxidation of primary alcohols of the type RR´CH·CH2OH:RR´·CH·CH2OH --> R·CO·R´ + H2O + H2CO2; by distillation of the calcium salts of the fatty acids, C_(n)H_(2n)O2; by heating the sodium salts of these acids C_(n)H_(2n)O2 with the corresponding acid anhydride to 190° C. (W. H. Perkin, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1886, 49, p. 322); by the action of anhydrous ferric chloride on acid chlorides (J. Hamonet, _Bull. de la soc. chim._, 1888, 50, p. 357),
2C2H5COCl --> C2H5·CO·CH(CH3)·COCl --> C2H5·CO·CH(CH3)·CO2H --> C2H5·CO·CH2·CH3;
and by the action of zinc alkyls on acid chlorides (M. Freund, Ann., 1861, 118, p. 1), 2CH3COCl + ZnC(H3)2 = ZnCl2 + 2CH3·CO·CH3. In the last reaction complex addition products are formed, and must be quickly decomposed by water, otherwise tertiary alcohols are produced (A. M. Butlerow, _Jahresb._, 1864, p. 496; _Ann._ 1867, 144, p. 1). They may also be prepared by the decomposition of ketone chlorides with water; by the oxidation of the tertiary hydroxyacids; by the hydrolysis of the ketonic acids or their esters with dilute alkalis or baryta water (see ACETO-ACETIC ESTER); by the hydrolysis of alkyl derivatives of acetone dicarboxylic acid, HO2C·CH2·CO·CHR·CO2H; and by the action of the Grignard reagent on nitriles (E. Blaise, _Comptes rendus_, 1901, 132, p. 38),
R·CN + R´M_(g)I --> RR´C:N·M_(g)I --> R·CO·R´ + NH3 + M_(g)I·OH.
The ketones are of neutral reaction, the lower members of the series being colourless, volatile, pleasant-smelling liquids. They do not reduce silver solutions, and are not so readily oxidized as the aldehydes. On oxidation, the molecule is split at the carbonyl group and a mixture of acids is obtained. Sodium amalgam reduces them to secondary alcohols; phosphorus pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by chlorine, forming the ketone chlorides. Only those ketones which contain a methyl group are capable of forming crystalline addition compounds with the alkaline bisulphites (F. Grimm, _Ann._, 1871, 157, p. 262). They combine with hydrocyanic acid to form nitriles, which on hydrolysis furnish hydroxyacids,
(CH2)2CO --> (CH3)2C·OH·CN --> (CH3)2·C·OH·CO2H;
with phenylhydrazine they yield hydrazones; with hydrazine they yield in addition ketazines RR´·C:N·N:C·RR´ (T. Curtius), and with hydroxylamine ketoximes. The latter readily undergo the "Beckmann" transformation on treatment with acid chlorides, yielding substituted acid amides.
RR´·C:NOH --> RC(NR´)·OH --> R·CO·NHR´
(see OXIMES, also A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 13). The ketones react with mercaptan to form mercaptols (E. Baumann, _Ber._, 1885, 18, p. 883), and with concentrated nitric acid they yield dinitroparaffins (G. Chancel, _Bull. de la soc. chim._, 1879, 31, p. 503). With nitrous acid (obtained from amyl nitrite and gaseous hydrochloric acid, the ketone being dissolved in acetic acid) they form isonitrosoketones, R·CO·CH:NOH (L. Claisen, _Ber._, 1887, 20, pp. 656, 2194). With ammonia they yield complex condensation products; acetone forming di- and tri-acetonamines (W. Heintz, _Ann._ 1875, 178, p. 305; 1877, 189, p. 214). They also condense with aldehydes, under the influence of alkalis or sodium ethylate (L. Claisen, _Ann._, 1883, 218, pp. 121, 129, 145; 1884, 223, p. 137; S. Kostanecki and G. Rossbach, _Ber._, 1896, 29, pp. 1488, 1495, 1893, &c.). On treatment with the Grignard reagent, in absolute ether solution, they yield addition products which are decomposed by water with production of tertiary alcohols (V. Grignard, _Comptes rendus_, 1900, 130, P. 1322 et seq.),
RR´CO --> RR´·C(OM_(g)I)·R´´ --> RR´R´´·C(OH) + M_(g)I·OH.
Ketones do not polymerize in the same way as aldehydes, but under the influence of acids and bases yield condensation products; thus acetone gives mesityl oxide, phorone and mesitylene (see below).
For _dimethyl ketone_ or acetone, see ACETONE. _Diethyl ketone_, (C2H5)2·CO, is a pleasant-smelling liquid boiling at 102.7° C. With concentrated nitric acid it forms dinitroethane, and it is oxidized by chromic acid to acetic and propionic acids. _Methylnonylketone_, CH3·CO·C9H19, is the chief constituent of oil of rue, which also contains _methylheptylketone_, CH3·CO·C7H15, a liquid of boiling-point 85-90° C. (7 mm.), which yields normal caprylic acid on oxidation with hypobromites.
_Mesityl oxide_, (CH3)2C:CH·CO·CH3, is an aromatic smelling liquid of boiling point 129.5-130° C. It is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in alcohol. On heating with dilute sulphuric acid it yields acetone, but with the concentrated acid it gives mesitylene, C9H12. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetic acid and hydroxyisobutyric acid (A. Pinner, _Ber._, 1882, 15, p. 591). It forms hydroxyhydrocollidine when heated with acetamide and anhydrous zinc chloride (F. Canzoneri and G. Spica, _Gazz. chim. Ital._, 1884, 14, p. 349). _Phorone_, (CH3)2C:CH·CO·CH:C(CH3)2, forms yellow crystals which melt at 28° C. and boil at 197.2° C. When heated with phosphorus pentoxide it yields acetone, water and some pseudo-cumene. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acids, while potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetone, carbon dioxide and oxalic acid.
DIKETONES.--The diketones contain two carbonyl groups, and are distinguished as [alpha] or 1.2 diketones, [beta] or 1.3 diketones, [gamma] or 1.4 diketones, &c., according as they contain the groupings -CO·CO-, -CO·CH2·CO-, -CO·CH2·CH2·CO-, &c.
The [alpha]-diketones may be prepared by boiling the product of the
## action of alkaline bisulphites on isonitrosoketones with 15% sulphuric
acid (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1887, 20, p. 3112; 1889, 22, p. 2115), CH3·CO·C:(N·OH)·CH3 --> CH3·CO·C:(NHSO3)·CH3 --> CH3·CO·CO·CH3; or by the action of isoamyl nitrite on the isonitrosoketones (O. Manasse, _Ber._, 1888, 21, p. 2177), C2H5·CO·C = (NOH)·CH3 + 11C5HONO = C2H5·CO·CO·CH3 + C5H11OH + N2O. They condense with orthodiamines to form quinoxalines (O. Hinsberg, _Ann._, 1887, 237, p. 327), and with ammonia and aldehydes to form imidazoles. _Diacetyl_, CH3·CO·CO·CH3, is a yellowish green liquid, which boils at 87-88°C., and possesses a pungent smell. It combines with sodium bisulphite and with hydrocyanic acid. Dilute alkalis convert it into paraxyloquinone.
The [beta]-diketones form characteristic copper salts, and in alcoholic solution they combine with semicarbazide to form products which on boiling with ammoniacal silver nitrate solution give pyrazoles (T. Posner, _Ber._, 1901, 34, p. 3975); with hydroxylamine they form isoxazoles, and with phenylhydrazine pyrazoles. _Acetyl acetone_, CH3·CO·CH2·CO·CH3, may be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on acetyl chloride, or by condensing ethyl acetate with acetone in the presence of sodium (L. Claisen). It is a liquid of boiling point 136° C. It condenses readily with aniline to give [alpha][gamma]-dimethyl quinoline.
The [gamma]-diketones are characterized by the readiness with which they yield furfurane, pyrrol and thiophene derivatives, the furfurane derivatives being formed by heating the ketones with a dehydrating agent, the thiophenes by heating with phosphorus pentasulphide, and the pyrrols by the action of alcoholic ammonia or amines. _Acetonyl acetone_, CH3·CO·CH2·CH2·CO·CH3, a liquid boiling at 194° C., may be obtained by condensing sodium aceto-acetate with mono-chloracetone (C. Paal, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 59),
CH3COCH2Cl + Na·CH·COCH3(COOR) --> CH3CO·CH2·CH·COCH3(COOR) --> CH3CO·CH2·CH2·COCH3;
or by the hydrolysis of diaceto-succinic ester, prepared by the action of iodine on sodium aceto-acetate (L. Knorr, _Ber._, 1889, 22, pp. 169, 2100).
1.5 diketones have been prepared by L. Claisen by condensing ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters and similar compounds with [beta]-ketonic esters and with 1.3 diketones. The ethoxymethylene aceto-acetic esters are prepared by condensing aceto-acetic ester with ortho-formic ester in the presence of acetic anhydride (German patents 77354, 79087, 79863). The 1.5 diketones of this type, when heated with aqueous ammonia, form pyridine derivatives. Those in which the keto groups are in combination with phenyl residues give pyridine derivatives on treatment with hydroxylamine, thus benzamarone, C6H5CH[CH(C6H5)·CO·C6H5], gives pentaphenylpyridine, NC5(C6H5)5. On the general reactions of the 1.5 diketones, see E. Knoevenagel (_Ann._, 1894, 281, p. 25 et seq.) and H. Stobbe (_Ber._, 1902, 35, p. 1445).
Many cyclic ketones are known, and in most respects they resemble the ordinary aliphatic ketones (see POLYMETHYLENES; TERPENES).
KETTELER, WILHELM EMMANUEL, BARON VON (1811-1877), German theologian and politician, was born at Harkotten, in Bavaria, on the 25th of December 1811. He studied theology at Göttingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich, and was ordained priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the State. This brought him into collision with the civil power, an attitude which he maintained throughout a stormy and eventful life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1848, and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight, energy and eloquence. In 1850 he was made bishop of Mainz, by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor Leopold Schmidt, of Giessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the diocese of Mainz itself. He also founded orders of School Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational agencies he had called into existence, and he laboured to institute orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle's Socialistic views, and published his _Die Arbeitfrage und das Christenthum_. When the question of papal infallibility arose, he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that such promulgation was inopportune. But he was not resolute in his opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further influenced by his own misgivings. He soon deserted his anti-Infallibilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August 1870. He was the warmest opponent of the State in the _Kulturkampf_ provoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never to "go to Canossa." To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and declared the Rhine to be a "Catholic river." He died at Burghausen, Upper Bavaria, on the 13th of July 1877. (J. J. L.*)
KETTERING, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 72 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1891), 19,454; (1901), 28,653. The church of SS Peter and Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays, clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III.
KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894), English county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the 9th of January 1817. His family had for some time been connected with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the bar, and in 1859 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882). He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board, he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the organization of a system of arbitration between employers and employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th of October 1894 at Wolverhampton.