Part 16

The explanation of differences in respect of the degree of commercial specialism in different places and industries can be formulated only very generally. Time is required for the differentiation and localization to take place. The English cotton trade had not advanced very far in the "'thirties," if we are to judge from the evidence given to commissions and parliamentary committees. The general conditions under which commercial specialism evolves may be taken to be a moderately limited range of products which do not present many varieties, and the qualities of which can be judged generally on inspection. In such circumstances private markets need not be built up, as they must be, for instance, for a new brand of soap which claims some subtle superiority to all others. Soaps under present conditions must be marketed by their producers. Broadly stated, if there be little competition as to substitutes, though there may be much as to price in relation to quality, commercial functions may specialize. On the whole this is the case in the cotton industry; in so far as it is not and firms produce specialities, they undertake much of the marketing work themselves.

The advantages of commercial specialism are numerous. Firstly it allows of differentiation of industrial processes, and this, of necessity, is accompanied by increasing returns. When weaving dissociates from spinning, both the number of looms in each business and the number of spindles in each business tend to increase; more division of labour is therefore secured, and lower costs of production are reached, and there is a further gain because producers concentrate their attention upon a smaller range of work. Again when producers are freed entirely, or to some extent, from commercial worries, they can attain a higher level of efficiency at the industrial task of mill organization, and a more perfect accommodation of capacity to function will be brought about. If the business unit is (aA[alpha]), a particular person may retain his place in the market by reason of his excellence at the work a or [alpha], though as works organizer (i.e. at the performances of function A) he may be incompetent. The heads of businesses will succeed according to their average capacities at the three tasks a, A and [alpha], and there is no guarantee, therefore, that any one of these tasks will be performed with the highest attainable efficiency in our present somewhat immobile economic system. But if the three functions are separated there is more certainty of a person's success in the performance of each determining his continued discharge of it. The problems that arise when specialized markets become very highly developed are dealt with in the article COTTON: MARKETING AND SUPPLY.

Operatives in various processes.

The distribution of cotton operatives among the chief centres has already been shown, but their distribution between processes has yet to be considered, and the proportions of different ages and sexes from time to time, together with the total. With such statistical material as is available relating to supplies of labour we may set forth also the official returns made of the quantity of machinery at work from time to time. It hardly need be pointed out that the ratio of machinery to operatives roughly measures the efficiency of labour, other things being equal.

_Machinery in the United Kingdom (in Thousands)._

+--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | Years. | Spinning | Doubling | Power- | | | Spindles. | Spindles. | Looms. | +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+ | 1874 | 37,516 | 4366 | 463 | | 1878 | 39,528 | 4679 | 515 | | 1885 | 40,120 | 4228 | 561 | | 1890 | 40,512 | 3993 | 616 | | 1903 | 43,905 | 3952 | 684 | +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+

_Operatives employed in the Cotton Industry (in Thousands). (From the Census Returns.*)_ (The figures in italics relate to Married and Widowed Women.)

+----------------------------------------+--------------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | 1901. | 1891. | 1881. | | +-------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | | England | | England | | England | | | Lancashire | and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales | +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. | |Cotton, card and blowing-room processes | 11.4 | 28.7 | 13.8 | 34.0| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | | 10.1 | |12.2 | | | | | | | | | | |Cotton spinning processes | 49.5 | 19.6 | 64.1 | 28.6| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | | 4.3 | | 6.0 | | | | | | | | | | |Cotton weaving, warping, &c. | 57.6 |113.5 | 66.1 |130.8| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | | 13.0 | | 15.8 | | | | | | | | | | |Cotton winding, warping, &c. | 14.8 | 38.6 | 18.3 | 48.9| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | | 38.1 | | 44.4 | | | | | | | | | | | +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----------+ | Total |133.3 | 265.9|162.3 |320.7|178.2|281.8|213.2|332.8|150.7|249.8|185.4|302.4| | +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Cotton workers in other processes or | 29.0 | 6.7 | 34.5 | 9.4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | | undefined | 1.8 | | | 2.3 | | | | | | | | | |Tape, manufacturer dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .47| .25| .9 | 1.5| .4 | .24| .7 | 1.2 | |Thread, manufacturer dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .2 | .9 | .6 | 2.1| .1 | .9 | .5 | 1.7 | |Fustian, manufacturer dealer | .6 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 2.6 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 3.2 | 5.0| 1.7 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 5.2 | | | .55| | | 1.0 | | | | | | | | | |Cotton, calico, warehouseman, dealer | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 2.5 | .3 | 3.2 | .38| +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ * Census classifications have been altered twice in the period covered by this table.

In Scotland there are less than 15,000 cotton operatives distributed as follows:--

In Thousands.

Card and blowing-room processes .4 Spinning-room processes 2.1 Winding, warping, &c. 2.7 Weaving, warping, &c. 6.8 Workers in other processes or undefined 2.8 ---- Total 14.8

_Operatives employed in Cotton Factories in the United Kingdom and Percentages of each Class. (From Returns of Factory Inspectors.)_

+-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | 1835.| 1838.| 1847.| 1850.| 1856.| 1862.| 1867.| +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Male and Female under | | | | | | | | | 13, or half-timers. | 13.2 | 45.7 | 5.8 | 4.6 | 6.5 | 8.8 | 10.4 | | Male, 13 to 18 | 12.5 | 16.6 | 11.8 | 11.2 | 10.3 | 9.1 | 8.6 | | Male, over 18 | 26.4 | 24.9 | 27.1 | 28.7 | 27.4 | 26.4 | 26.0 | | Female, over 13 | 47.9 | 53.8 | 55.3 | 55.5 | 55.8 | 55.7 | 55.0 | +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Total number of | | | | | | | | | Cotton Operatives |218,000|259,500|316,400|331,000|379,300|451,600|401,100| +=======================+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+ | | 1870.| 1874.| 1878.| 1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1901.| +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Male and Female under | | | | | | | | | 13, or half-timers. | 9.6 | 14.0 | 12.8 | 9.9 | 9.1 | 5.8 | 4.1 | | Male, 13 to 18 | 8.5 | 8.0 | 7.2 | 7.9 | 8.2 | 7.9 | 7.0 | | Male, over 18 | 26.0 | 24.1 | 25.3 | 26.4 | 26.9 | 27.6 | 27.8 | | Female, over 13 | 55.9 | 53.9 | 54.7 | 55.8 | 55.8 | 58.7 | 61.1 | +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Total number of | | | | | | | | | Cotton Operatives |450,100|479,600|483,000|504,100|528,800|538,900|513,000| +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

_Number of Operatives (in Thousands) engaged in Spinning, Manufacturing and Subsidiary Processes (excluding Lace-making, but including the Fustian Manufacture). (From Census Returns.)_

+------+------------------------+------------------------+------------------------+ | | Males. | Females. | Males and Females. | +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ | |Under| |Over | All |Under| |Over | All |Under| |Over | All | | | 15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15. |15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+ | 1881 | 29 | 39 | 121 | 189 | 40 | 81 | 189 | 310 | 69 | 120 | 310 | 500 | | 1891 | 36 | 45 | 137 | 218 | 50 | 94 | 197 | 341 | 86 | 139 | 334 | 560 | | 1901 | 24 | 36 | 139 | 199 | 36 | 92 | 207 | 335 | 60 | 128 | 346 | 535 | +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+

The fact that the branches of work covered by the figures are not identical explains discrepancies between this and the previous table.

_Number of Operatives engaged in the Cotton Industry (Processes being distinguished and Ages and Sex). (From Special Returns made by Factory Inspectors.)_

+------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+----------+ | | Males in Thousands. | Females in Thousands. | | | +-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+ Total in | | | Half- | Under |18 and | Half- | Under | 18 and |Thousands.| | |timers.| 18. | over. |timers.| 18. | over. | | +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+ | | | |Spinning and Preparatory Processes| | |1896 | 5.58 | 22.24 | 71.44 | 4.40 | 30.12 | 78.96 | 212 | |1898-1899* | 5.42 | 21.57 | 71.37 | 3.86 | 30.44 | 77.64 | 210 | |1901 | 4.98 | 21.10 | 68.98 | 3.10 | 30.98 | 81.68 | 211 | | | | |Weaving and Preparatory Processes | | |1896 | 7.54 | 18.79 | 75.81 | 11.87 | 49.19 | 151.34 | 315 | |1898-1899* | 6.21 | 17.29 | 72.74 | 10.38 | 48.38 | 150.99 | 306 | |1901 | 4.72 | 14.86 | 73.81 | 8.0 | 45.66 | 155.03 | 302 | +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+ * Average for 1898 and 1899.

The figures in this table are not quite complete except for 1901; the relations between the changes shown for each class should nevertheless be accurately represented.

_Index Numbers of Money, Wages and Prices._

+-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |1840.|1855.|1860.|1866.|1870.|1874.|1877.|1880.|1883.|1886.|1891.| 1902.| +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ |Cotton operatives. | 50 | 54 | 64 | 74 | 74 | 90 | 90 | 85 | 90 | 93 | 100 |105 | |Average wages for | | | | | | | | | | | | | | eight trades | 61 | 61 | 73 | 81 | 83 | 97 | 94 | 89 | 92 | 90 | 100 |108.7*| |Sauerbeck's | | | | | | | | | | | | | | index number | 103 | 73 | 99 | 102 | 96 | 102 | 94 | 88 | 82 | 69 | 72 | 69 | |Average price of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | wheat per quarter| 66/4| 40/3| 53/3|49/11|46/11| 55/9| 56/9| 44/4| 41/7| 31/-| 37/-|28/1 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ * Average for a slightly different group.

_Weekly Wages in the Manchester and District Cotton Trade._

+--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |1834.|1836.|1839.|1841.|1849.|1850.|1859.|1860.|1870.|1877.|1882.|1883.|1886.| +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.| |Spinners' average |23 4 |23 11|22 1 |22 0 |21 7 |20 5 |24 1 |23 2 |27 8 |34 4 |31 6 |32 4 |35 7 | |Big piecers' average|11 0 | 9 3 | 8 6 | 8 8 | 8 6 |13 0 |10 0 |10 0 |11 0 |12 4 |16 0 |16 0 |13 7 | |Weavers' average |11 0 |10 2 | 9 6 | 9 6 |10 6 |10 3 |11 2 |10 8 |12 2 |15 1 |15 6 |15 0 |13 3 | +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

The most noticeable features of these tables are the decrease in the proportion of children employed and the steady increase in the number of operatives as a whole until recent years. The contraction of the body of operatives of late years seems to have occurred primarily among children and young persons (where the first check would naturally be looked for), and secondarily among adult males. If allowance be made for the smaller value of children as compared with adults, and the census results be taken, it is not evident that there has been any diminution in the amount of labour-power; and if the factory inspectors' returns be accepted, the falling off in the number of operatives cannot be proved to have taken place in either of the chief branches of the industry at so rapid a rate as to have occasioned the enforced dismissal of any hands. An industry which was not recruited at all would have dwindled at a greater rate. At least it may be inferred from these figures, when taken in conjunction with the large increase in spindles and looms, that the output per head has considerably advanced in spite of the rise in the average quality of both yarns and fabrics produced. This rise in the value per unit of the output accounts to some extent for the fact that wages have not been adversely affected of late.

Wages and piece-rate lists.

Mr A. L. Bowley has calculated index numbers of wages for the leading trades, including the manufacture of cotton. Those for the cotton industry are given below, together with averages for cotton and wool workers, the building trades, mining, workers in iron, sailors, compositors and agriculturists (England), the numbers in each class being allowed for in the average. Side by side with these figures, Sauerbeck's index numbers of general wholesale prices are given, together with the average prices of wheat per quarter.

It must be remembered that the figures given above for cotton workers and average wages for eight trades do not measure the differences between each, but only the differences between the movements of each. Actual average money wages in the cotton industry have probably been approximately those stated in the second table beneath, but as these figures are culled from various sources they must not be taken to indicate fluctuations.[42]

The wage of fine spinners exceeds the average wage of spinners by percentages varying from about 25 to 35. In the above figures the earnings of three classes of spinners are averaged.

The highest wages are earned by mule-spinners (who are all males); their assistants, known as piecers, are badly paid. Persons can easily be found, however, to work as piecers, because they hope ultimately to become "minders," i.e. mule-spinners in charge of mules. The division of the total wage paid on a pair of mules between the minder and the piecers is largely the result of the policy of the spinners' trade union. Almost without exception in Lancashire one minder takes charge of a pair of mules with two or three assistants according to the amount of work to be done. Among the weavers there is no rule as to the number of assistants to full weavers (who are both male and female), or as to the number of looms managed by a weaver, but the proportion of assistants is much less than in the spinning branches, perhaps because of the inferior strength of the weavers' unions. For the calculation of wages piece-rate lists are universally employed as regards the payment of full weavers and spinners; some piecers get a definite share of the total wage thus assigned to a pair of mules, while others are paid a fixed weekly amount. Many ring-spinners are now paid also by piece-rate lists, and all other operatives are almost universally so paid, except, as a rule, the hands in the blowing-room and on the carding-machines. Spinning and weaving lists are most complicated; allowances are made in them for most incidents beyond the operatives' control, by which the amount of the wage might be affected. Still, however, they could not cover all circumstances, and much is left to the manner of their application and private arrangement. They should be regarded as giving the basis, rather than as actually settling, the wage in all cases. The history of lists stretches back to the first quarter of the 19th century as regards spinners, and to about the middle of the century generally as regards weavers, though a weaving list agreed to by eleven masters was drawn up as early as 1834. There are still many different district lists in use, but the favourite spinning lists are those of Oldham and Bolton, and the weaving list most generally employed is that known as the "Uniform List," which is a compromise between the lists of Blackburn, Preston and Burnley. Under the "Particulars Clause," first included in a Factory Act in 1891 and given extended application in 1895, the

## particulars required for the calculation of wages must be rendered by

the employer. As in spinning there used to be doubts about the quantity of work done, the "indicator," which measures the length of yarn spun, is coming into general use under pressure from the operatives. We ought to observe here that the Oldham Spinning list differs from all others in that its basis is an agreed normal time-wage for different kinds of work on which piece-rates are reckoned. But in effect understandings as to the level of normal time-wages are the real basis everywhere. If the average wages in a

## particular mill are lower than elsewhere for reasons not connected

with the quality of labour (e.g. because of antiquated machinery or the low quality of the cotton used), the men demand "allowances" to raise their wages to the normal level. Advances and reductions are made on the lists, and under the Brooklands Agreement, entered into by masters and men in the cotton spinning industry in 1893, advances and reductions in future must not exceed 5% or succeed one another by a shorter period than twelve months. The changes as a rule now are 5% or 2-1/2%. In all branches of the cotton industry it is usual for a conference to take place between the interested parties before a strike breaks out, on the demand of one or other for an advance or reduction.

Trade Unions.

Organization among the workers in the cotton industry is remarkably thorough. Almost all spinners are members of trade unions, and though the weavers are not so strongly united, the bulk of them are organized. The piecers are admitted as members of piecers' associations, connected with the spinners' associations and controlled by them. Attempts to form independent piecers' unions have failed. Weavers' assistants are included in the weavers' unions, which may be joined in different classes, the benefits connected with which vary with the amounts paid. One subscription only, however, is imposed by each branch spinners' association, but in all branches it is not the same, though every branch pays the same per member to the amalgamation. All the trade unions of the chief workers in the cotton industry are federated in the four societies: (1) the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton Spinners (created in 1853 and reformed in 1870), (2) the Northern Counties Amalgamated Association of Weavers (founded 1884), (3) the Amalgamated Association of Card and Blowing-room Operatives (established 1886), and (4) the Amalgamated Association of Power-loom Overlookers (founded 1884). These were not, however, the first attempts at federation, and the term "federation" must not be taken in any strict sense. The distribution of power between the central authority and the local Societies varies, but in some cases, for instance among the spinners, the local societies approximate as closely to the status of mere branches, as to that of independent units federated for limited objects. We ought also to mention the societies of warp-dressers and warpers, tape-sizers and cloth-workers and warehousemen. There is no one federation of all cotton-workers, but the United Textile Factory Workers has been periodically called into being to press the matter of factory legislation, and international textile congresses are occasionally held by the operatives of different countries.

As to employers, four extensive associations include almost all the organization among them, two concerned chiefly with spinning and two with weaving. The former two are the Federation of Master Cotton Spinners' Associations with local associations and including 21,000,000 spindles, and the Bolton Master Cotton Spinners' Association with 7,000,000 spindles; the latter two are the North and North-East Lancashire Spinners' and Manufacturers' Association, covering about 3,000,000 spindles in addition to a large section of the looms of Lancashire, and the United Cotton Manufacturers' Association.[43]

Factory Acts.