Part 4

of the Lamb_ (1647), vigorously opposed religious freedom. He was a man of great learning and was a prolific writer. His writings include: _The Keyes to the Kingdom of Heaven and the Power thereof_ (1644), _The Way of the Churches of Christ in New England_ (1645), and _The Way of Congregational Churches Cleared_ (1648), these works constituting an invaluable exposition of New England Congregationalism; and _Milk for Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for the Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England, but may be of like Use for any Children_ (1646), widely used for many years, in New England, for the religious instruction of children.

See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton's grandson, in _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a sketch by Cotton's contemporary and friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young's _Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay from 1623 to 1636_ (Boston, 1846); also A. W. McClure's _The Life of John Cotton_ (Boston, 1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis's _History of the First Church in Boston_ (Boston, 1881), and a chapter in Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901). (W. WR.)

COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, Bart. (1571-1631), English antiquary, the founder of the Cottonian library, born at Denton in Huntingdonshire on the 22nd of January 1571, was a descendant, as he delighted to boast, of Robert Bruce. He was educated at Westminster school under William Camden the antiquary, and at Jesus College, Cambridge. His antiquarian tastes were early displayed in the collection of ancient records, charters and other manuscripts, which had been dispersed from the monastic libraries in the reign of Henry VIII.; and throughout the whole of his life he was an energetic collector of antiquities from all parts of England and the continent. His house at Westminster had a garden going down to the river and occupied part of the site of the present House of Lords. It was the meeting-place in the last years of Elizabeth's reign of the antiquarian society founded by Archbishop Parker. In 1600 Cotton visited the north of England with Camden in search of Pictish and Roman monuments and inscriptions. His reputation as an expert in heraldry led to his being asked by Queen Elizabeth to discuss the question of precedence between the English ambassador and the envoy of Spain, then in treaty at Calais. He drew up an elaborate paper establishing the precedence of the English ambassador. On the accession of James I. he was knighted, and in 1608 he wrote a _Memorial on Abuses in the Navy_, that resulted in a navy commission, of which he was made a member. He also presented to the king an historical _Inquiry into the Crown Revenues_, in which he speaks freely about the expenses of the royal household, and asserts that tonnage and poundage are only to be levied in war time, and to "proceed out of good will, not of duty." In this paper he supported the creation of the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay the crown L1000; and in 1611 he himself received the title.

Cotton helped John Speed in the compilation of his _History of England_ (1611), and was regarded by contemporaries as the compiler of Camden's _History of Elizabeth_. It seems more likely that it was executed by Camden, but that Cotton exercised a general supervision, especially with regard to the story of Mary queen of Scots. The presentation of his mother's history was naturally important to James I., and Cotton himself took a keen interest in the matter. He had had the room in Fotheringay where Mary was executed transferred to his family seat at Connington. Meanwhile he was enlarging his collection of documents. In 1614 Arthur Agarde (q.v.) left his papers to him, and Camden's manuscripts came to him in 1623. In 1615 Cotton, as the intimate of the earl of Somerset, whose innocence he always maintained, was placed in confinement on the charge of being implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury; he confessed that he had acted as intermediary between Sarmiento, the Spanish ambassador, and Somerset, and had altered the dates of Somerset's correspondence. He was released after about eight months' imprisonment without formal trial, and obtained a pardon on payment of L500. His friendship with Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England from 1613 to 1621, brought further suspicion, probably undeserved, upon Cotton, of unduly favouring the Catholic party. From Charles I. and Buckingham Cotton received no favour; his attitude towards the court had begun to change, and he became the intimate friend of Sir John Eliot, Sir Simonds d'Ewes and John Selden. He had entered parliament in 1604 as member for Huntingdon; in 1624 he sat for Old Sarum; in 1625 for Thetford; and in 1628 for Castle Rising, Norfolk. In the debate on supply in 1625 Cotton provided Eliot with full notes defending the

## action of the opposition in parliament, and in 1628 the leaders of the

party met at Cotton's house to decide on their policy. In 1626 he gave advice before the council against debasing the standard of the coinage; and in January 1628 he was again before the council, urging the summons of a parliament. His arguments on the latter occasion are contained in his tract entitled _The Danger in which the Kingdom now standeth and the Remedy_. In October of the next year he was arrested, together with the earls of Bedford, Somerset, and Clare, for having circulated, with ironical purpose, a tract known as the _Proposition to bridle Parliament_, which had been addressed some fifteen years before by Sir Robert Dudley to James I., advising him to govern by force; the circulation of this by Parliamentarians was regarded as intended to insinuate that Charles's government was arbitrary and unconstitutional. Cotton denied knowledge of the matter, but the original was discovered in his house, and the copies had been put in circulation by a young man who lived after him and was said to be his natural son. Cotton was himself released the next month; but the proceedings in the star chamber continued, and, to his intense vexation, his library was sealed up by the king. He died on the 6th of May 1631, and was buried in Connington church, Huntingdonshire, where there is a monument to his memory.

Many of Cotton's pamphlets were widely read in manuscript during his lifetime, but only two of his works were printed, _The Reign of Henry III_. (1627) and _The Danger in which the Kingdom now Standeth_ (1628). His son, Sir Thomas (1594-1662), added considerably to the Cottonian library; and Sir John, the fourth baronet, presented it to the nation in 1700. In 1731 the collection, which had in the interval been removed to the Strand, and thence to Ashburnham House, was seriously damaged by fire. In 1753 it was transferred to the British Museum.

See the article LIBRARIES, and Edwards's _Lives of the Founders of the British Museum_, vol. i. Several of Cotton's papers have been printed under the title _Cottoni Posthuma_; others were published by Thomas Hearne.

COTTON (Fr. _coton_; from Arab, _qutun_), the most important of the vegetable fibres of the world, consisting of unicellular hairs which occur attached to the seeds of various species of plants of the genus _Gossypium_, belonging to the Mallow order (Malvaceae). Each fibre is formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal cell of the testa or outer coat of the seed.

_Botany and Cultivation._--The genus _Gossypium_ includes herbs and shrubs, which have been cultivated from time immemorial, and are now found widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. South America, the West Indies, tropical Africa and Southern Asia are the homes of the various members, but the plants have been introduced with success into other lands, as is well indicated by the fact that although no species of _Gossypium_ is native to the United States of America, that country now produces over two-thirds of the world's supply of cotton. Under normal conditions in warm climates many of the species are perennials, but, in the United States for example, climatic conditions necessitate the plants being renewed annually, and even in the tropics it is often found advisable to treat them as annuals to ensure the production of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate cultural operations, and to keep insect and fungoid pests in check.

Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows that the hairs are flattened and twisted, resembling somewhat in general appearance an empty and twisted fire hose. This characteristic is of great economic importance, the natural twist facilitating the operation of spinning the fibres into thread or yarn. It also distinguishes the true cotton from the silk cottons or flosses, the fibres of which have no twist, and do not readily spin into thread, and for this reason, amongst others, are very considerably less important as textile fibres. The chief of these silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs borne on the interior of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of _Eriodendron anfractuosum_, the silk cotton tree, a member of the Bombacaceae, an order very closely allied to the Malvaceae.

_Classification._--Considerable difficulty is encountered in attempting to draw up a botanical classification of the species of _Gossypium_. Several are only known in cultivation, and we have but little knowledge of the wild parent forms from which they have descended. During the periods the cottons have been cultivated, selection, conscious or unconscious, has been carried on, resulting in the raising, from the same stock probably, in different places, of well-marked forms, which, in the absence of the history of their origin, might be regarded as different species. Then again, during at least the last four centuries, cotton plants have been distributed from one country to another, only to render still more difficult any attempt to establish definitely the origin of the varieties now grown. Under these circumstances it is not surprising to find that those who have paid attention to the botany of the cottons differ greatly in the number of species they recognize. Linnaeus described five or six species, de Candolle thirteen. Of the two Italian botanists who in comparatively recent years have monographed the group, Parlatore (_Le Specie dei cotoni_, 1866) recognizes seven species, whilst Todaro (_Relazione sulla culta dei cotoni_, 1877-1878) describes over fifty species: many of these, however, are of but little economic importance, and, in spite of the difficulties mentioned above, it is possible for practical purposes to divide the commercially important plants into five species, placing these in two groups according to the character of the hairs borne on the seeds. Sir G. Watt's exhaustive work on _Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World_ (1907) is the latest authority on the subject; and his views on some debated points have been incorporated in the following account.

[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

FIG. 1.--Seed-hairs of the Cotton, _Gossypium herbaceum_. A, Part of seed-coat with hairs; B_1, insertion and lower part; B_2, middle part; and B_3, upper part of a hair.]

A seed of "Sea Island cotton" is covered with long hairs only, which are readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small black seed quite clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end, whereas a seed of "Upland" or ordinary American cotton bears both long and short hairs; the former are fairly easily detached (less easily, however, than in Sea Island cotton), whilst the latter adhere very firmly, so that when the long hairs are pulled off the seed remains completely covered with a short fuzz. This is also the case with the ordinary Indian and African cottons. There remains one other important group, the so-called "kidney" cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily comes away clean as with "Sea Island," but, instead of each seed being separate, the whole group in each of the three compartments of the capsule is firmly united together in a more or less kidney-shaped mass. Starting with this as the basis of classification, we can construct the following key, the remaining principal points of difference being indicated in their proper places:--

i. Seeds covered with long hairs only, flowers yellow, turning to red.

A. Seeds separate. Country of origin, Tropical America--(1) _G. barbadense_, L. B. Seeds of each loculus united. Country of origin, S. America--(2) _G. brasiliense_, Macf.

ii. Seeds covered with long and short hairs.

A. Flowers yellow or white, turning to red. a. Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large. Flowers white. Country of origin, Mexico--(3) _G. hirsutum_, L. b. Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed. Small. Flowers yellow. Country of origin, India--(4) _G. herbaceum_, L. B. Flowers purple or red. Leaves 3 to 7 lobed. Place of origin, Old World--(5) _G. arboreum_, L.

1. _G. barbadense_, Linn. This plant, known only in cultivation, is usually regarded as native to the West Indies. Watt regards it as closely allied to _G. vitifolium_, and considers the modern stock a hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies. He classifies the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as _G. barbadense_, var. _maritima_. Whatever may be its true botanical name it is the plant known in commerce as "Sea Island" cotton, owing to its introduction and successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and the coastal districts of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. It yields the most valuable of all cottons, the hairs being long, fine and silky, and ranging in length from 3/8 to 2-1/2 in. By careful selection (the methods of which are described below) in the United States, the quality of the product was much improved, and on the recent revival of the cotton industry in the West Indies American "Sea Island" seed was introduced back again to the original home of the species.

Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the same species. Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to be races or hybrids of _G. peruvianum_, Cav. Egyptian cotton in length of staple is intermediate between average Sea Island and average Upland. It has, however, certain characteristics which cause it to be in demand even in the United States, where during recent years Egyptian cotton has comprised about 80% of all the "foreign" cottons imported. These special qualities are its fineness, strength, elasticity and great natural twist, which combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited to the manufacture of the better qualities of hosiery, for mixing with silk and wool, for making lace, &c. It also mercerizes very well. The principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: _Mitafifi_, the best-known and most extensively grown, hardy and but little affected by climatic variation. It is usually regarded as the standard Egyptian cotton; the lint is yellowish brown, the seeds black and almost smooth, usually with a little tuft of short green hairs at the ends. _Abassi_, a variety comparatively recently obtained by selection. The lint is pure white, very fine and silky, but not so strong as Mitafifi cotton. _Yannovitch_, a variety known since about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint of the white Egyptian cottons. _Bamia_, yielding a brown lint, very similar to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable. _Ashmouni_, a variety principally cultivated in Upper Egypt. The lint is brown and generally resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable.

Other varieties are _Zifiri_, _Hamouli_ and _Gallini_, all of minor importance.

2. _G. brasiliense_, Macf. (_G. peruvianum_, Engler), or kidney cotton. Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from this species appear to be Pernambuco, Maranham, Ceara, Aracaty and Maceio cottons. The fibre is generally white, somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially adapted for mixing with wool. The staple varies in length from 1 to about 1-1/2 in.

3. _G. hirsutum_, Linn. Although _G. barbadense_ yields the most valuable cotton, _G. hirsutum_ is the most important cotton-yielding plant, being the source of American cotton, i.e. Upland, Georgia, New Orleans and Texas varieties. The staple varies usually in length between 3/4 and 1-1/4 in. According to Watt there are many hybrids in American cottons between _G. hirsutum_ and _G. mexicanum_.

4. _G. herbaceum_, Linn. Levant cotton is derived from this species. The majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India are often referred to this species, which is closely allied to _G. hirsutum_ and has been regarded as identical with it. Amongst the cottons of this source are Hinganghat, Tinnevelly, Dharwar, Broach, Amraoti (Oomras or Oomrawattee), Kumta, Westerns, Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, Sind and Bhaunagar. Watt dissents from this view and classes these Indian cottons as _G. obtusifolium_ and _G. Nanking_ with their varieties. The Indian cottons are usually of short staple (about 3/4 in.), but are probably capable of improvement.

5. _G. arboreum_, Linn. This species is often considered as indigenous to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is found wild in Upper Guinea, Abyssinia, Senegal, etc. It is the "tree cotton" of India and Africa, being typically a large shrub or small tree. The fibre is fine and silky, of about an inch in length. In India it is known as Nurma or Deo cotton, and is usually stated to be employed for making thread for the turbans of the priests. Commercially it is of comparatively minor importance.

The following table, summarized from the _Handbook to the Imperial Institute Cotton Exhibition_, 1905, giving the length of staple and value on one date (January 16, 1905), will serve to indicate the _comparative_ values of some of the principal commercial cottons. The actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly.

Length of Staple. Value Inches. Per lb. Sea Island Cotton-- s. d. Carolina Sea Island 1.8 1 3 Florida " " 1.8 1 0 Georgia " " 1.7 11-1/4 Barbados " " 2.0 1 3

Egyptian Cottons-- Yannovitch 1.5 9-1/4 Abassi 1.5 8-3/4 Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi) 1.2 7-1/2

American Cotton-- Good middling Memphis 1.3 4-2/5 Good middling Texas 1.0 4-1/5 Good middling Upland 1.0 4

Indian Cottons-- Fine Tinnevelly 0.8 4-1/4 Fine Bhaunagar 1.0 3-7/8 Fine Amraoti 1.0 3-7/8 Fine Broach 0.9 3-13/16 Fine Bengal 0.9 3-11/16 Fine ginned Sind 0.8 3-11/16 Good ginned Kumta 1.0 3-1/2

The close relationship between the length of the staple and the market price will be at once apparent.

_Cultivation._--Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the world, being grown on a greater or less scale as a commercial crop in almost every country included in the broad belt between latitudes 43 deg. N. and 33 deg. S., or approximately within the isothermal lines of 60 deg. F.

The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal vicissitudes. Thus, for example, in the United States the worst season rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a quarter or one-third; such a thing as a "half-crop" is unknown. Various climatic factors may cause temporary checks, but the growing and maturing period is sufficiently long to allow the plants to overcome these disturbances.

Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of favourable weather. It thrives in a warm atmosphere, even in a very hot one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration is not in excess of the supply of water. An idea of the requirements of the plant will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the conditions which have been found to give the best results in the United States.

During April (when the seed is usually sown) and May frequent light showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist to assist germination and the growth of the young plants, are desired. Three to four inches of rain per month is the average. The active growing period is from early June to about the middle of August. During June and the first fortnight in July plenty of sunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain to promote healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in the cotton belt for this period is about 4-1/2 in. per month. During the second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, provided the subsequent months are dry and warm. The first flowers usually appear in June, and the bolls ripen from early in August. Picking takes place normally during September and October, and during these months dry weather is essential. Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although in diminishing degree, until the advent of frost, which kills the flowers and young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton for the season.

In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but there the dry season checks production in much the same way as do the frosts in temperate climates. In either case an adequate but not excessive rainfall, increasing from the time of sowing to the period of active growth, and then decreasing as the bolls ripen, with a dry picking season, combined with sunny days and warm nights, provide the ideal conditions for successful cotton cultivation. In regions where climatic conditions are favourable, cotton grows more or less successfully on almost all kinds of soil; it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams, heavy clays and sandy "bottom" lands with varying success. Sandy uplands produce a short stalk which bears fairly well. Clay and "bottom" lands produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion. The most suitable soils are medium grades of loam. The soil should be able to maintain very uniform conditions of moisture. Sudden variations in the amount of water supplied are injurious: a sandy soil cannot retain water; on the other hand a clay soil often maintains too great a supply, and rank growth with excess of foliage ensues. The best soil for cotton is thus a deep, well-drained loam, able to afford a uniform supply of moisture during the growing period. Wind is another important factor, as cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds; and in exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts have at times to be provided.

_Cultivation in the United States._--The United States being the most important cotton-producing country, the methods of cultivation practised there are first described, notes on methods adopted in other countries being added only when these differ considerably from American practice.