Chapter 10 of 22 · 3903 words · ~20 min read

Part 10

Some Dasaris are servants under Vaishnava Brahmans, who act as gurus to various castes. It is their duty to act as messengers to the guru, and carry the news of his arrival to his disciples. At the time of worship, and when the guru approaches a village, the Dasari has to blow a long brass trumpet (tarai). As the Brahman may not approach or touch his Paraiyan disciples, it is the Dasari who gives them the holy water (thirtham). When a Paraiyan is to be branded, the Brahman heats the instruments bearing the devices of the chank and chakaram, and hands them to the Dasari, who performs the operation of branding. For councils, settlement of marriage, and the decision of other social matters, the Dasaris meet, at times of festivals, at well-known places such as Tirutani, Tirupati or Tiruvallur.

At the annual festival at the temple at Karamadi in the Coimbatore district, which is visited by very large numbers, belonging for the most part to the lower orders, various vows are fulfilled. These include the giving of kavalam to Dasaris. Kavalam consists of plantain fruits cut up into small slices, and mixed with sugar, jaggery (crude sugar), fried grain, or beaten rice. The Dasaris are attached to the temple, and wear short drawers, with strings of small brass bells tied to their wrists and ankles. They appear to be possessed, and move wildly about to the beating of drums. As they go about, the devotee puts some of the kavalam into their mouths. The Dasaris eat a little, and spit out the remainder into the hands of the devotees, who eat it. This is believed to cure all diseases, and to give children to those who partake of it. In addition to kavalam, some put betel leaves into the mouths of the Dasaris, who, after chewing them, spit them into the mouths of the devotees. At night the Dasaris carry large torches made of rags, on which the devotees pour ghi (clarified butter). Some say that, many years ago, barren women used to take a vow to visit the temple at the festival time, and, after offering kavalam, have sexual intercourse with the Dasaris. The temple authorities, however, profess ignorance of this practice.

When proceeding on a pilgrimage to the temple of Subramanya Swami at Palni, some devotees pierce their cheeks with a long silver skewer, which traverses the mouth cavity; pierce the tongue with a silver arrow, which is protruded vertically through the protruded organ; and place a silver shield (mouth-lock) in front of the mouth. Some Dasaris have permanent holes in their cheeks, into which they insert skewers when they go about the country in pursuit of their profession.

For the following note on Dasaris in the Vizagapatam district, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The caste is an endogamous unit, the members calling themselves Sankhu (or conch-blowing) Dasaris, and is divided into numerous exogamous septs. The menarikam custom, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is followed. The remarriage of widows is permitted, but divorce is forbidden. The dead are cremated, and the chinna (small) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies are observed. These Dasaris profess the Tengalai form of Vaishnavism, and get themselves branded. The caste is more secular, and less religious than in the southern districts. A Dasari of the North Arcot or Anantapur type, with conch-shell, metal gong, iron lamp, copper vessel, and metal image of Hanuman on his neck, is scarcely met with. The Vizagapatam Dasaris are the most popular among ballad-singers, and sing songs about heroes and heroines, of which the following are the most appreciated:--

1. Bobbilipata, which describes the siege and conquest of Bobbili by Bussy in 1757.

2. Ammi Nayudupata, which describes the tyrannical behaviour of one Ammi Nayudu, a village headman in the Palkonda taluk, who was eventually murdered, to the great relief of those subject to him, by one of his dependents.

3. Lakshmammapata, which relates the life and death of Lakshmamma, a Velama woman, who went against the menarikam custom of the caste, and was put to death by her husband.

4. Yerakammaperantala-pata, which recounts the story of one Yerakamma, who committed sati.

Yerakamma is the local goddess at Srungavarapukota in the Vizagapatam district. The ballads sung about her say that she was the child of Dasari parents, and that her birth was foretold by a Yerukala woman (whence her name), who prophesied that she would have the gift of second sight. She eventually married, and one day she begged her husband not to go to his field, as she was sure he would be killed by a tiger if he did. Her husband went notwithstanding, and was slain as she had foreseen. She committed sati on the spot where her shrine still stands, and at this there is a festival at Sivaratri.

As ballad-singers, two Dasaris generally travel about together, begging from house to house, or at the weekly market, one singing, while the other plays, and joins in the chorus.

The titles of these Dasaris are Anna and Ayya.

Dasari has been recorded as an exogamous sept of the Koravas, Malas, and Yerukalas.

Dasi (servant).--The name for a non-Brahman female attendant upon a Nambutiri Brahman woman, which should not, as sometimes happens, be confused with Deva-dasi, (q.v.), which has quite another significance.

Dayare (Muhammadan).--The Dayare, Daira, or Mahadev Muhammadans are found in the Bangalore and Mysore districts of the Mysore province. Concerning them, we are informed in the Mysore Gazetteer that "they differ from the general body of Muhammadans in a point of belief concerning the advent of Imam Mahadi. The Dayares maintain that he has visited this earth and departed, while the orthodox Muhammadans believe the Prophet (Imam) has not yet appeared, and that his coming will be a sign of the end of the world. The following account of the origin of this body of dissenters has been related. A child was born of the Sayad sect of Muhammadans at Guzrat about four hundred years ago, who was named Sayad Ahmed, and afterwards became distinguished by the title of Alam (superior to Maulvi) in consequence of his great learning. Sayad Ahmed proclaimed himself the equal of Mahomet, and superior to all other Paigambars or messengers of god. He succeeded in obtaining some followers who believed in him, and repaired to Jivanpur in the Nizam's territories, where he took the name of Imam Mahadi. From thence he, with some disciples, proceeded to Mecca, but did not visit Medina. After some time he returned to Hyderabad, still retaining the name of Imam Mahadi. Such pretensions could not be tolerated by the great mass of Muhammadans, and Sayad Ahmed, together with his disciples, being worsted in a great religious controversy, was driven out of Hyderabad, and came to Channapatna in the Bangalore district, where they settled. The descendants of these settlers believe that Sayad Ahmed was the Prophet Imam Mahadi predicted in the Koran. They offer prayers in a masjid of their own, separate from other Muhammadans, and do not intermarry with the rest. They are an enterprising body, and carry on a brisk trade in silk with the western coast." They are mostly domiciled at Channapatna, where a considerable industry in the cocoons of the mulberry silk-moth is carried on.

When an adult Hindu joins the Dayares as a convert, an interesting mock rite of circumcision is performed as a substitute for the real operation. A strip of betel leaf is wrapped round the penis, so that it projects beyond the glans, and is snipped instead of the prepuce.

Like other Muhammadan classes of Southern India, the Dayares are as a whole dolichocephalic. But the frequent occurrence of individuals with a high cephalic index would seem to point to their recruitment from the mesaticephalic or brachycephalic Canarese classes.

Dayyalakulam (devil's family).--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-caste of Gollas, who are wrestlers and acrobats.

Dedingi.--Recorded as a sub-division of Poroja.

Dera.--Dera, Dendra, and Devara occur as synonyms of Devanga.

Desa.--A sub-division of Balija. Desadhipati, denoting ruler of a country, is a name assumed by some Janappans, who say that they are Balijas.

Desayi.--For the following account of the Desayi institution, I am indebted to an excellent account thereof by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri. [52] "The word Desayi means of the country. For almost every taluk in the North Arcot district there is a headman, called the Desayi Chetti, who may be said in a manner to correspond to a Justice of the Peace. The headmen belong to the Kavarai or Balija caste, their family name being Dhanapala--a common name among the Kavarais--which may be interpreted as 'the protector of wealth.' The Dhanapala Desayi Chetti holds sway over eighteen castes, Kavarai, Uppara, Lambadi, Jogi, Idiga, Paraiyan, etc. All those that are called valangai, or right-hand caste, fall within his jurisdiction. He has an establishment of two peons (orderlies), who are castemen, and another menial, a sort of bugler, who blows the horn whenever the Desayi Chetti goes on circuit. When any deviation in the moral conduct of any man or woman occurs in a village under the Desayi's jurisdiction, a report of it is at once sent to the Desayi Chetti, through the Paraiya of the village, by the Desayi's representative in that village. He has his local agent in every village within his jurisdiction. On receipt of a report, he starts on circuit to the village, with all the quaint-looking paraphernalia attached to his office. He moves about from place to place in his bullock coach, the inside of which is upholstered with a soft cushion bed, with a profusion of pillows on all sides. The Paraiya horn-blower runs in front of the carriage blowing the horn (bhamka), which he carries suspended from his shoulder when it is not in use. On the Desayi Chetti arriving at a village, the horn is blown to announce his visit on professional matters. While he camps at a village, people from the surrounding country within his jurisdiction usually go to him with any representations they may have to make to him as the head of their caste. The Desayi generally encamps in a tope (grove) adjoining the village. At the sound of the horn, the castemen on whose account the visit is made assemble at the place of encampment, with the Desayi's local representative at their head. The personal comforts of the Desayi are first attended to, and he is liberally supplied with articles of food by the party on whose account the visit has been undertaken. A large cup-shaped spoon is the ensign of the Desayi. On the outer surface, all round its edge, are carved in relief eighteen figures, each one being typical of one of the castes of which the Desayi is the social head. Under each figure is inscribed in Tamil the name of the caste which that figure typifies. The figures are smeared with red powder and sandal, and decorated with flowers. The menial, taking up the cup, rings the bell attached to it, to summon the parties. As soon as the sound is heard, the castemen amongst whom any offence has occurred assemble, each house in the village being represented by a member, so as to make up a panchayat (council). The Desayi's emblem is then placed in front of him in the midst of the panchayat, and a regular enquiry held. Supposing a person stands charged with adultery, the accused is brought before the assembly, and the charge formally investigated with the advice of the panchayat, the Desayi declares the accused guilty or not guilty, as the case may be. In the event of a man being pronounced guilty, the panchayat directs him to pay the aggrieved husband all the expenses he had incurred in connection with his marriage. In addition to this, a fine ranging from ten to twenty rupees is imposed on the offender by the Desayi, and is collected at once. A small fraction of this fine, never exceeding four annas, is paid to every representative who sits in the panchayat, the balance going into the Desayi's pocket. If the delinquent refuses to pay the fine, a council of the same men is held, and he is excommunicated. The recalcitrant offender soon realises the horrors of excommunication, and in a short time appears before the Desayi, and falls prostrate at his feet, promising to obey him. The Desayi then accompanies him to the village, calls the panchayat again, and in their presence removes the interdict. On this occasion, the excommunicated person has to pay double the amount of the original fine. But disobedience is rare, as people are alive to the serious consequences of excommunication. The Desayi maintains a regular record of all his enquiries and judgments, and in the days of the Nawabs these decisions were, it would appear, recognised by the Courts of Justice. The same respect was, it is said, also shown to the Desayi's decisions by the early courts of John Company. [53]

"Every house belonging to the eighteen castes sends to the village representative of the Desayi, who is called Periyatanakaran, a pagoda (Rs. 3-8) in cash, besides rice, dhal (Cajanus Indicus), and other articles of food for every marriage that takes place, in the village. The representative reserves for himself all the perishable articles, sending only the cash to the Desayi. Thus, for every marriage within his jurisdiction, the Desayi gets one pagoda. Of late, in the case of those Desayis who have purchased their rights as such from the old Desayis, instead of a pagoda, a fee of two annas and a half is levied on each marriage. Every death which occurs in a village is equally a source of income to the Desayi, who receives articles of food, and four annas or more, according to the circumstances of the parties in whose house the death has occurred. As in the case of marriage, the local representative appropriates to himself the articles of food, and transmits the money to the Desayi. The local agent keeps a list of all domestic occurrences that take place in the village, and this list is most carefully scrutinised and checked by the Desayi during his tours, and any amount left unpaid is then collected. Whenever a marriage takes place in his own house, all the houses within his jurisdiction are bound to send him rice, dhal, and other articles, and any money they can afford to pay. Sometimes rich people send large sums to the Desayi, to enable him to purchase the clothes, jewels, etc., required for the marriage. When a Desayi finds his work too heavy for him to attend to single-handed, he sells a portion of his jurisdiction for some hundreds or thousands of rupees, according to its extent, to some relation. A regular sale deed is executed and registered." (See also Samaya.)

Desikar.--A sub-division and title of Pandaram.

Desur.--The name of a sub-division of Kapu, which is either territorial, or possibly derived from deha, body, and sura, valour.

Deva.--Deva or Devara, meaning God, has been recorded as a synonym of Devanga and Ganiga or Gandla and a sept of Moger, and Deva Telikulakali as a name for those who express and sell oils in the Vizagapatam district. Devara occurs further as a title of the Jangams. At the Madras Census, 1901, Devar was returned as the name of Telugu merchants from Pondicherry trading in glassware. Devar is also the title of Occhans, who are priests at temples of village deities. The title of Maravans is Devan or Tevan. In South Canara, the Halepaiks (toddy-drawers) are known as Devaru Makkalu (God's children), which, it has been suggested, [54] is possibly a corruption of Tivaru or Divaru Makkalu, meaning children of the islanders, in reference to their supposed descent from early immigrants from the island of Ceylon.

Deva-dasi.--In old Hindu works, seven classes of Dasis are mentioned, viz., (1) Datta, or one who gives herself as a gift to a temple; (2) Vikrita, or one who sells herself for the same purpose; (3) Bhritya, or one who offers herself as a temple servant for the prosperity of her family; (4) Bhakta, or one who joins a temple out of devotion; (5) Hrita, or one who is enticed away, and presented to a temple; (6) Alankara, or one who, being well trained in her profession, and profusely decked, is presented to a temple by kings and noblemen; (7) Rudraganika or Gopika, who receive regular wages from a temple, and are employed to sing and dance. For the following general account I am indebted to the Madras Census Report, 1901:--

"Dasis or Deva-dasis (handmaidens of the gods) are dancing-girls attached to the Tamil temples, who subsist by dancing and music, and the practice of 'the oldest profession in the world.' The Dasis were probably in the beginning the result of left-handed unions between members of two different castes, but they are now partly recruited by admissions, and even purchases, from other classes. The profession is not now held in the consideration it once enjoyed. Formerly they enjoyed a considerable social position. It is one of the many inconsistencies of the Hindu religion that, though their profession is repeatedly and vehemently condemned by the Shastras, it has always received the countenance of the church. The rise of the caste, and its euphemistic name, seem both of them to date from about the ninth and tenth centuries A.D., during which much activity prevailed in Southern India in the matter of building temples, and elaborating the services held in them. The dancing-girls' duties, then as now, were to fan the idol with chamaras (Tibetan ox tails), to carry the sacred light called kumbarti, and to sing and dance before the god when he was carried in procession. Inscriptions [55] show that, in A.D. 1004, the great temple of the Chola king Rajaraja at Tanjore had attached to it four hundred talic' cheri pendugal, or women of the temple, who lived in free quarters in the four streets round about it, and were allowed tax-free land out of the endowment. Other temples had similar arrangements. At the beginning of the last century there were a hundred dancing-girls attached to the temple at Conjeeveram, who were, Buchanan tells us, [56] 'kept for the honour of the deities and the amusement of their votaries; and any familiarity between these girls and an infidel would occasion scandal.' At Madura, Conjeeveram, and Tanjore there are still numbers of them, who receive allowances from the endowments of the big temples at these places. In former days, the profession was countenanced not only by the church, but also by the State. Abdur Razaak, a Turkish ambassador at the court of Vijayanagar in the fifteenth century, describes [57] women of this class as living in State-controlled institutions, the revenue of which went towards the upkeep of the police.

"At the present day they form a regular caste, having its own laws of inheritance, its own customs and rules of etiquette, and its own panchayats (councils) to see that all these are followed, and thus hold a position, which is perhaps without a parallel in any other country. Dancing-girls, dedicated to the usual profession of the caste, are formally married in a temple to a sword or a god, the tali (marriage badge) being tied round their necks by some men of their caste. It was a standing puzzle to the census enumerators whether such women should be entered as married in the column referring to civil condition.

"Among the Dasis, sons and daughters inherit equally, contrary to ordinary Hindu usage. Some of the sons remain in the caste, and live by playing music for the women to dance to, and accompaniments to their songs, or by teaching singing and dancing to the younger girls, and music to the boys. These are called Nattuvans. Others marry some girl of the caste, who is too plain to be likely to be a success in the profession, and drift out of the community. Some of these affix to their names the terms Pillai and Mudali, which are the usual titles of the two castes (Vellala and Kaikola) from which most of the Dasis are recruited, and try to live down the stigma attaching to their birth. Others join the Melakkarans or professional musicians. Cases have occurred, in which wealthy sons of dancing-women have been allowed to marry girls of respectable parentage of other castes, but they are very rare. The daughters of the caste, who are brought up to follow the caste profession, are carefully taught dancing, singing, the art of dressing well, and the ars amoris, and their success in keeping up their clientele is largely due to the contrast which they thus present to the ordinary Hindu housewife, whose ideas are bounded by the day's dinner and the babies. The dancing-girl castes, and their allies the Melakkarans, are now practically the sole repository of Indian music, the system of which is probably one of the oldest in the world. Besides them and the Brahmans, few study the subject. The barbers' bands of the villages usually display more energy than science. A notable exception, however, exists in Madras city, which has been known to attempt the Dead March in Saul at funerals in the Pariah quarters.

"There are two divisions among the Dasis, called Valangai (right-hand) and Idangai (left-hand). The chief distinction between them is that the former will have nothing to do with the Kammalans (artisans) or any other of the left-hand castes, or play or sing in their houses. The latter division is not so particular, and its members are consequently sometimes known as the Kammala Dasis. Neither division, however, is allowed to have any dealings with men of the lowest castes, and violation of this rule of etiquette is tried by a panchayat of the caste, and visited with excommunication.

"In the Telugu districts, the dancing-girls are called Bogams and Sanis. They are supposed to be dedicated to the gods, just as the Dasis are, but there is only one temple in the northern part of the Presidency which maintains a corps of these women in the manner in vogue further south. This exception is the shrine of Sri Kurmam in Vizagapatam, the dancing-girls attached to which are known as Kurmapus. In Vizagapatam most of the Bogams and Sanis belong to the Nagavasulu and Palli castes, and their male children often call themselves Nagavasulus, but in Nellore, Kurnool and Bellary they are often Balijas and Yerukalas. In Nellore the Bogams are said to decline to sing in the houses of Komatis. The men of the Sanis do not act as accompanists to their women at nautch parties, as Bogam and Dasi men do.

"In the Oriya country the dancing-girl caste is called Guni, but there they have even less connection with the temples than the Bogams and Sanis, not being even dedicated to the god.