Chapter 21 of 25 · 14799 words · ~74 min read

PART VIII.

GUNNERY.

By the Parabolic Theory, the greatest range is when the angle of elevation is 45°, or half a right angle; and the ranges are equal at angles, equally above, and below 45°. In projectiles, moving with velocities not exceeding 300 or 400 feet per second of time, the Parabolic theory will resolve cases tolerably near the truth; but in cases of great projectile velocities, that theory is quite inadequate, without the aid of data, drawn from good experiments; for so great is the effect of the resistance of the air to projectiles of considerable velocity, that some of those, which in the air range only two or three miles, would, in vacuo, range between twenty and thirty miles. The effects of this resistance are also various, according to the velocity, the diameter, and the weight of the shot.

By experiments it will be found that the greatest range (instead of being constantly that at an elevation of 45°, as in the Parabolic theory), will be at all intermediate degrees between 45° and 30° (with ordinary charges about 42°), being more, or less, both according to the velocity, and the weight of the projectile; the smaller velocities, and larger shells ranging farthest when projected almost at an elevation of 45°; while the greatest velocities, especially with the smaller shells, range farthest with an elevation of about 30°. However, as sufficient experiments have not yet been made to establish true rules for practical gunnery, independent of the Parabolic theory, we must at present content ourselves with the data of some one certain experimental range, and time of flight at a given angle of elevation, and then, by help of these, and the Parabolic theory, we can determine the like circumstances for other elevations that are not greatly different from the former, assisted by the following rules:—

PRACTICAL RULES IN GUNNERY.

1.—_To find the Velocity of any shot, or shell._

It has been found by experiments, that with shot of mean windage, and powder of mean strength, a charge of one-third of the weight of the ball gives an initial velocity of about 1600 feet per second: therefore, _to find the velocity given by any other charge_, divide three times the weight of the charge by the weight of the ball, and multiply the square root of the quotient by 1600, the product will be the velocity in feet, or the space the shot passes over in the first second.[28]

2. _The first graze, with given elevation, and charge, being known, to determine the charge for any other first graze, and elevation._

Multiply the known charge, and elevation into the proposed first graze, also the proposed elevation into the known first graze, and divide the first product by the last, for the charge required in ounces.

3. _Given the range for one charge, to find the range for another charge, or the charge for another range._

The ranges have the same proportion as the charges; that is, as one range is to its charge, so is any other range to its charge, the elevation of the piece being the same in both cases.

_Table of Velocities, &c., of shells._

Nature of shells, in inches 13 10 8 5½ 4⅖ Their weight (loaded) in pounds 200 92 46 16 8 Charge of powder (land service) do. 5 3 2 1 ½ The velocities 436 500 629 693 693

_From Experiments on the velocities of shot_, the following results have been obtained:—

1. _The time of a ball’s flight is nearly as the range_, the gun, and elevation being the same.

2. _The velocities decrease as the distances increase_ (arising from the resistance of the air, which opposes the progress of the shot,) in a proportion somewhat higher than the squares of the velocities throughout, and subject only to a small variation.

3. _Very little advantage is gained, in point of range, by increasing the charge_ more than is necessary to attain the object, the velocities given by large charges being very soon reduced to those by moderate charges; those, for instance, given by half the shot’s weight are reduced to an equality with those by one-third, after passing through a space of only 200 feet. (_Vide_ 8.)

4. _Very little benefit is derived from increasing the length of guns_, the velocity given by long guns of 22 calibres being reduced to an equality with that of short guns of 15½ calibres with similar charges, after passing through the following spaces—viz.:—

With ½ the shot’s weight, about 285 ” ⅓ do. do. 200 ” ¼ do. do. 150 ” ⅙ do. do. 115

5. _The resistance of the air_ against balls of different diameters with equal velocities, is very nearly in the proportion of the squares of their diameters, or as their surfaces.

6. _A very great increase of velocity may be acquired by a decrease of windage_, from ⅓ to ¼ being lost by the windage of ½0 the diameter of the bore.

7. _By firing the charge in different parts_ (separately, or simultaneously), by compressing the charge, by the use of wads, by varying the weight of the gun to lessen the recoil, or even by stopping the recoil entirely, no sensible change is produced in the velocity of the ball.

8. _The velocity increases with the charge_, to a certain point, peculiar to each gun; but, by further increasing the charge, the velocity gradually diminishes; yet the recoil is always increased by an increase of charge. (_Vide_ 3.)

9. _The velocities of balls fired with equal charges_ increase to a certain point, when the gun is longer, in a proportion which is nearly the middle ratio between the square and cube roots of the length of the bore.

10. _When shot of different weights are fired with the same charges of powder_, the velocities communicated to them are nearly in the inverse ratio of the square roots of their weights. Therefore, shot which are of different weights, and impelled by the firing of different charges of powder, acquire velocities which are directly as the square roots of the charges of powder, and inversely as the square roots of the weights of the shot. By making use of shot of a heavier metal than iron (lead for instance) the momentum of the shot discharged with the same charge of powder would be increased in the ratio of the square root of the shot’s weight, which would both augment the force of the blow with which it would strike, and also the extent of the range.

_Compound-shot_, or shells filled with lead, fired with charges increased ⅛th, will increase the power of range considerably.

11. _With common shells at 45° elevation, the time of flight_ is nearly equal to the square root of the range in feet, divided by 4; or, more nearly, equal to the square root of the quotient of the range in feet, divided by 16-1/12.

12. _The range at 45° elevation_ is nearly equal to the square of the time of flight in seconds, multiplied by 16-1/12 feet. The range at 15° will be about half that at 45°.

13. _Upon inclined planes, at any elevation_, there are always two elevations with which any range may be obtained.

_The elevation which gives the greatest range, on a given ascent_, is equal to half the sum of 90° added to the ascent.

_The elevations which give equal ranges on a given ascent_, are the complements of each other added to the ascent.

_The elevation which gives the greatest range on a descent_, is equal to half the complement of the descent.

14. _The depths penetrated by balls of the same size into wood_, with different velocities, or charges, are nearly as the squares of the velocities. Balls of different sizes will penetrate to depths proportionate to their diameters; therefore a greater ball will not only make a larger hole, but will also penetrate farther than a small one with the same velocity.

15. By experiments at a mean range, it has been ascertained that in common earth, dug up and well rammed, a musket ball buries itself nearly 1½ foot; a 6-pounder from 3½ feet to 4½ feet; 9-pounder from 6½ feet to 7 feet; 12-pounder from 8½ feet to 10 feet; 18, and 24-pounders from 11½ feet to 13 feet.

THEORY, AND PRACTICE OF GUNNERY,

APPLICABLE ESPECIALLY TO THE SERVICE OF NAVAL ORDNANCE.[29]

_Double Shotting._

“Double shotting may be used with all 32-pounder guns above those of 32 cwt., at distances not exceeding 400 or 500 yards; but the most efficient practice with two shot is at 300 yards. The 32-pounders of 32 cwt. and 25 cwt. should not, however, be so used beyond 200 and 250 yards.

“With double loadings of round shot and grape, when the shot is put in first, the projectiles range more together than when the reverse process is used; such loading requires, however, more elevation to be given to the gun than when single shot are used, on account of the grape shot impeding the flight of the round shot. A double load of grape from the same gun ranges tolerably well together for 300 yards. With a double load of case shot, even with half a degree more elevation than when a single load is used, a great many balls will not range above 100 yards to the first graze; within this extent they lose much of their velocity, and few reach an object at 200 yards. A 32-pounder gun of 56, or of 50 cwt., double shotted with charges of 6 lb., requires at 400 yards 1½ degree of elevation; at 300 yards 1 degree; and at 200 yards half a degree; and, in general, half a degree must be added, with any double loading, to the elevation required with single shot.

“For round, and grape, at 400 yards, there is required 1½ degree of elevation; and at 200 yards half a degree. These projectiles range well together at a target, but they should not be used at a greater distance than 150 yards on account of their dispersion, and the differences of their striking velocities, and penetrating forces.

“With a single load of grape at 400 yards, the elevation required is 1 degree, a full charge of powder being used. With a double load of grape at 400 yards, and the reduced charge, the elevation required is 3½ degrees; at that distance, however, double grape scatters so much as to make very bad practice.”

_The effects of wads._

“Experience has proved that different degrees of ramming, or different dimensions of wads, make no sensible alteration in the velocities of the ball as determined by the vibrations of the suspended gun. Stout firm junk wads, so tight as with difficulty to be rammed into the gun, have been used; sometimes they were placed between the powder and ball, sometimes over both, but no difference was discovered in the velocity of the ball. Different degrees of ramming were also tried without wads. The charge was sometimes set home without being compressed; sometimes rammed with different numbers of strokes, or pushed up with various degrees of force; but the velocity of the ball remained the same. With great windage, the vibrations of the pendulum were much reduced, although tight wads under the shot were used; so that wads do not prevent the escape of the inflamed powder by the windage, nor under any circumstances occasion any sensible difference in the velocity of the ball.[30]

“From experiments made on board the ‘Excellent,’ in 1847, it was found that a grummet wad is more efficient than one of junk, in preventing the cartridge from shifting its place in the bore when the guns were run out with a strong jerk.

“With respect to small arms, it is found that wads of different kinds have different effects upon the projectile, by modifying the action of the charge; and from experiments which have been made in the United States with a musket pendulum, the following results have been obtained: With a charge equal to 77 grains, a musket ball, wrapped in cartridge paper, and the paper crumpled into a wad, the velocity of the ball was 1342 feet; and when two felt wads, cut from a hat, were placed on the powder, with one on the ball, the velocity was 1482 feet. With a charge equal to 140 grains, two felt wads being placed on the powder, and one on the ball, the velocity was 1525 feet; when cartridge paper was used, crumpled into a wad, the velocity was 1575 feet; and when one wad of pasteboard was placed over the powder, with another on the ball, it was 1599 feet. These results seem to indicate that wads made of the stiffest materials are the most advantageous.”

_Penetration of Shot._

“Experiments were made in 1848 on board H.M.S. ‘Excellent,’ by firing both solid and hollow shot against the ‘Prince George’ hulk, which was moored at the distance of 1200 yards. The guns were laid at small angles of elevation, generally between two and three degrees; and the following is a brief statement of some of the most remarkable effects which were produced, the depth penetrated being expressed by the sum of the distances in solid wood which the shot passed through, or deeply furrowed. Several 18-pr. shot, with charges of 6 lb. of powder, penetrated to depths varying from 21 to 33 inches, according to the state of the wood, and there stuck. With charges of 8 lb., the 32-pr. shot penetrated to depths varying from 22 to 48 inches. A 68-pr. shot (solid), with a charge of 10 lb. of powder, made a total penetration of 46 inches. Many hollow shot were fired with remarkable effects from 68-pr. guns, making penetrations which varied from 25 to 56 inches. One of these, with a charge of 8 lb., penetrated the side of the hulk, passing through 28 inches of good wood, tore out the iron hook, which holds the port-hinge, and fractured the after-side of the port, driving the splinters about the deck. It rent away the end of a beam, grazed the deck, passing through two planks, and cutting down a stanchion 8 inches square, making several large splinters; it then struck against the opposite side of the ship, whence it rebounded against that which it entered.

“At 800 yards, with heavy guns, a charge of one quarter of the weight of shot may always be used; at 500 yards, the charge may be reduced to one-sixth; and within 400 yards, two shot at once may be used with advantage.

“Hollow shot from a 68-pounder carronade, with a charge of 5 lb. 8 oz., penetrated to depths varying from 28 to 31 inches.

“In order to ascertain if shot reflected from water would damage a ship, shots from a 32-pounder gun, with a charge of 10 lb. and a depression equal to 7 degrees, were fired, and the following are some of the effects produced:—

“At the distance of 16 yards, the shot struck the water at 4 feet from the ship’s side; and in one experiment it lodged in the cut-water; in another, it indented the ship’s side; and in both cases it struck at 18 inches below the water-line. At the distance of 36 yards, with a depression of 5 degrees, the shot struck the water at distances from the ship’s side varying from 2 to 15 feet; and, ricocheting, entered the ship at distances above the water-line varying from 2 inches to 3 feet. In consequence of the loss of force which the balls sustained by striking the water, it has been inferred, that if a shot be fired with such a depression as a ship’s gun will bear, it will not penetrate into water more than 2 feet; and, consequently, it will be impossible to injure a ship materially by firing at her under water.

“From experiments made at Metz, in 1834, it appears that masses of cast iron, above one yard square and thirteen inches thick, do not resist the shock of balls fired against them with even moderate velocities, having been fractured not only at the point of contact, but also at points considerably distant from thence. It was found, also, that the side of a traversing gun carriage of iron was broken by an 8-pounder ball, having a velocity of 492 feet; which proves that carriages of this nature would, if struck, be rendered unserviceable: and that a collision, which, with a wooden carriage, would have damaged only an accessory part, without requiring its being replaced, would, with a cast-iron carriage, have a more fatal effect. Not only is the object struck destroyed, but the fragments scattered in different directions are highly dangerous.

“During the year 1850, various experiments were made on board the ‘Excellent,’ at Portsmouth, in order to ascertain the effects which might be produced on iron vessels by shot, both solid and hollow, with various charges of powder; for which purpose a double target, ⅝ of an inch thick, consisting of iron ribs and plates, resembling the opposite sides of a strongly-built iron steamer, was constructed, at the distance of about 450 yards from the ship. The general effect was, that the target was always pierced by the shot, and that numerous splinters were detached from it in every direction, which could not fail to be most destructive to the crew of a vessel of this description; the shot was, besides, almost always split in pieces by the shock. One 32-pounder shot broke into thirty-four fragments. Some experiments were made with grape-shot, fired from a 32-pounder, with charges of 3 lb. and 6 lb., when the shot passed through a plate, making a clean hole 3 inches in diameter, and knocking out some rivets. The effects produced by 6-inch shells were not greater than those produced by shot. Two of these being filled with powder, and having the fuze holes plugged up, broke on passing through the plate; the powder, however, did not explode, but was seen to go away in a cloud like dust.

“From the above-mentioned experiments, it may be concluded, that the splinters detached from the side of an iron ship, and the fragments of the shot themselves, would as effectually clear her quarters as the explosions of shells; in either case the effect would be more serious than any that could be produced by like means on a ship constructed of timber, incendiary effects excepted. With both raking, and diagonal firing, the effect is described as being most formidable; the holes, which were very irregular, were in all cases larger than the shot.

“In 1838, experiments were made at Gavre with two solid balls fired at once against a butt of oak timber, in order to determine the different penetrations of the shot, and the distances between their centres at different distances from the piece. Three different natures of ordnance were used: a long 30-pounder gun, a cannon obusier of 30, and a 30-pounder carronade. One ball was in contact with the charge, and the other in contact with the former. From these experiments it was evident that the ball which was in contact with the charge had the least velocity, and the least penetrating power. It is further remarkable that, at distances beyond 200 yards, the vertical dispersion greatly exceeds the horizontal dispersion.”

_Excentric spherical shot._

“Experiments with these projectiles were carried on at Metz in 1841; the following were the effects observed:—When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the ranges were the longest, and when below, the shortest; when to the right, or left hand, the deviations were also to the right, or left. The mean range of a 12-pounder brass gun, which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure were not coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, being an increase of 500 yards.

“When the centre of gravity is not coincident with that of figure, the projectile is made to revolve, _ab initio_, on the former centre, thus occasioning a compound motion in the flight of the projectile. When the centre of gravity is below the axis of the bore, the front must turn from below upwards, and a rotation in this direction continuing, the range will be diminished. In like manner, when the centre of gravity is placed on the right, or left hand of the axis of the bore, the shot will turn on a vertical axis, and produce deviations to the right, or left hand respectively. Experiments were carried on at Portsmouth, and at Shoebury Ness, in the year 1850, to ascertain whether the deviations of excentric projectiles were so regular as to admit of being allowed for in pointing the gun; and whether any result might appear to disprove the maxim, that spherical and homogeneous projectiles are the truest in their flight.

+-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+ | Nature of | Charge.| Eleva-| Nature of | Greatest | Deviation.| | Ordnance. | | tion.| Projectile.| Range. | | +-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+ | | lb. | Deg. | | Yards. | Yards. | | AT PORTSMOUTH. | | |{ 8 | 2⅛ |{Common Shot| 1200 | 2 to 6 | | |{ | |{Excentric | 1450 | 2 to 7 | | |{ | | | | | | 32 Pr. |{ 10 | 2½ |{Common | 1654 | 2 | | |{ | |{Excentric | 2108 | 6 to 27 | | |{ | | | | | | |{ 12 | 12 |{Common | 3100 | 10 to 58 | | | | |{Excentric | 3710 | 10 to 150 | | | | | | | | | |{ 10 | 2½ |{Common | 1035 | 2 to 3 | | |{ | |{Excentric | 1181 | 2 to 7 | | |{ | | | | | | 8 inch |{ 10 | 5 |{Common | 1750 | 2 to 4 | | |{ | |{Excentric | 1980 | 9 to 21 | | |{ | | | | | | |{ 10 | 10 |{Common | 2800 | 2 to 25 | | | | |{Excentric | 3230 | 6 to 54 | | | | | | | | | AT SHOEBURY NESS. | | |{ 8 | 2½ |{Common | 1296 | 8⅖ | | |{ | |{Excentric | 1750 | 16 | | |{ | | | | | | 32 Pr. |{ 10 | 2½ |{Common | 1404 | 6¼ | | |{ | |{Excentric | 1776 | ⅓ to 5⅔ | | |{ | | | | | | |{ 10 | 12 |{Common | 3068 | 68 | | | | |{Excentric | 3498 | 186 | | | | | | | | | |{ 10 | 5 |{Common | 1820 | 16⅖ | | 8 inch. |{ | |{Excentric | 2207 | 19⅓ | | |{ | | | | | | |{ 10 | 10 |{Common | 2703 | 35 | | | | |{Excentric | 2339 | 141 | +-----------+--------+-------+------------+----------+-----------+

“The preceding table presents, in an abstracted form, the results of the experiments at Portsmouth, and Shoebury Ness. It will be observed that the ordnance used were 32-pounders, and 8-inch guns; from both of which natures were fired the ordinary solid shot, and also shot rendered excentric by the removal of certain quantities of metal. Thus, in the Portsmouth experiments, 1 lb. of metal was taken from each 32 lb. shot, and 3 lb. from each 68 lb. shot; in those at Shoebury Ness, 1 lb. or 2 lb. were taken from the 32 lb. shot, and 4 lb. from the 68 lb. shot.

“On analyzing the experiments, both at Portsmouth, and Shoebury Ness, it appears that the flight of the ordinary solid shot was the most true, the lateral deflections being frequently but one-half, sometimes one-third, or one-fourth only of the deflections of the excentric shot; that these last deflections were always in the direction in which the centres of gravity of the shot were placed in the gun; and that the increases, or diminutions of range caused by the vertical deviations were produced respectively, as the centres of gravity of the shot were placed upwards, or downwards. It appears, also, that the lateral deviations, though in general constant in direction, were very variable in amount. The results above stated prove decisively the correctness of the deductions from theory, and of the practical maxim, that errors in sphericity and homogeneity in a shot are causes of its deviation from a correct path; and it follows that spherical and homogeneous projectiles, being the most simple, and quite indifferent to the position in which they are placed in the gun and rolled home, as well as to that in which they pass through the atmosphere, are decidedly to be preferred to the others.

“The results of these very curious, and instructive experiments fully explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have hitherto been considered, in length of range, and in the lateral deviations: these have been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt, productive of errors in practice; but it is now clear that those errors are chiefly occasioned by the excentricity, and non-homogeneity of the shot, and the accidental positions of the centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the bore.

“The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure, and homogeneity of solid shot, and the concentricity of shells; and they exhibit the remarkable fact, that a very considerable increase of range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation of the gun.”

_Resistance of iron plates, oak plank, &c., against musketry, canister, grape shot, hollow, and solid shot._

“From experiments in November, 1849, the following results were obtained:—

“_Marine percussion musket_—Charge, 4½ drams; distance, 40 yards.

“Iron plates, ⅛ inch } All passed through. Oak plank, 1 ” }

Iron plates, 2/8 ” } 4 in 6 passed through. Oak plank, 2 ” }

Iron plates, ⅜ ” } Both musket proof. Oak plank, 3 ” }

_Canister_—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 100 yards.

Iron plates, ⅜ inch } Passed through. Oak plank, 3 ” }

Iron plates, 4/8 ” } Canister proof. Oak plank, 4 ” }

_Grape_—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 200 yards.

Iron plates, 4/8 inch } ” ⅝ ” } All passed through. ” 6/8 ” }

Oak plank, 4 inch } All passed through. ” 5 ” } ” 6 ” Generally passed through.

“Experiments were made in June, 1850, against two sections of the ‘Simoom,’ ⅝ inch thick, placed 35 feet apart; the guns, and charges were those used in all steam vessels. The result made evident that two, or three shot, or sometimes even a single one, striking near the water-line of an iron vessel, must endanger the ship. Another most serious evil is, that the shot breaks, on striking, into innumerable pieces, which pass into the ship with such force, as to range afterwards to a distance of 400 or 500 yards; and that the effect on men at their quarters would be more destructive than canister shot, supposing them to pass through a ship’s side; as when the plates are only ⅜ inch thick.

“Experiments were made in July, 1850, against an iron section similar to the ‘Simoom;’ it was filled in and made solid with 5½ inch oak timber between the iron ribs, and 4½ inch oak planking above the water-ways, which were 1 foot thick, and with 3 inch fir above the portsills; these were strongly secured to the iron plates by bolts. The results were as follows:—The holes made by the shot were not so irregular as on the former occasion, but as clear and open; all parts of the shot passed right through the iron and timber, and then split, and spread abroad with considerable velocity. With low charges, the shot did not split into so many pieces as before. With high charges, the splinters from the shot were as numerous and as severe as before, with the addition, in this, and the former case, of the evil to which other vessels are subject—that of the splinters torn from the timbers.

“In August, 1850, an iron section similar to the ‘Simoom’ was prepared with a covering of fir plank on the outside, of the thickness of 2, 3, and 4 inches, in different parts. The result of this experiment was similar to the last, when the wood was on the inside; with the exception of the splinters from the wood. The holes made by the shot were regular, of the full size of the shot, and open; every shot split on passing through—those between the ribs into a few pieces only, those that struck on the ribs into a great number; in both cases, when combined with the splinters of the iron side, the effect must prove highly destructive.

“A comparison as to the effect of shot on iron, and timber, was made by firing 8-inch hollow shot, and 32-pound solid shot, at a butt built for experimental shell-firing, with timber having 6-inch plank on the outside, and 4-inch within; the result was, that the splinters from the wood were trifling when compared with those from the iron.

“The general result of all the foregoing, and consecutive experiments for the same purpose, clearly demonstrates that the destructive effects of the impacts of shot on iron cannot be prevented. If the iron sides are of the thickness required to give adequate strength to the ship (⅝, or at least 4/8 of an inch), the shot will be broken by the impact; if the iron plates be thin enough to let the shot pass into the ship without breaking, the vessel will be deficient in strength; the shot will do its work, particularly in oblique or raking fire, more effectively than its splinters, and, in passing out, make apertures more difficult to plug or stop, than in passing in. When a clean hole is made by a shot penetrating an iron plate, the whole of the disc struck out by the shot is broken into numerous small pieces, which are driven into the ship with very destructive effects; and if the plate be so thick (viz., upwards of 4/8 of an inch) as to cause the shot to break on striking, the fragments will nevertheless pass into the ship, as in the case of a percussion, or concussion shell, and so produce a terrific compound effect by the fragments of both.

“The expedient of combining wood, and iron, either by substituting timber for the iron ribs, or the reverse, outside planking for the iron plates—makes the matter worse. The pieces of ribs struck off, sometimes of great length, pass on with the shot, to produce more extensive ravages elsewhere.”

NAVAL GUNNERY.

“In firing into masses of timber, or any solid substance, _that velocity which can but just penetrate_ will occasion the greatest shake, and tear off the greatest number of and largest splinters; consequently, in close actions, shot discharged with the full quantity of powder tear off fewer splinters than balls fired from the same nature of guns with reduced charges.

“_In naval actions_, shot intended to take effect upon the hull of an enemy should rather be discharged with a falling than with a rising side; but such pieces as may be appointed specially to act against the masts and rigging should be fired, on the contrary, with the rising motion, the aim being taken low.

“_In all close actions_, the great object should be to strike as often as possible the enemy’s hull. One or two 24-lb. shot taking effect just below the water-line, and perhaps perforating both sides of a small vessel, will in general either force her to surrender, or send her to the bottom; and such an injury is much more likely to be occasioned by firing with a falling than with a rising side.

“_To estimate the distance between vessels._[31]

“Measure with a sextant, or quadrant, the angular height of the enemy’s mast, and by referring _to Table B_, the corresponding distance may be taken out.

“_In Table A_, the height of the masts to the head of the maintopgallant rigging, and likewise to the maintopmast crosstrees above the surface of the water at low water mark, are given for every rate, and class of vessel.

“The distances in English yards, corresponding to the angles subtended by the masts, are given in the first column _of Table B_.

“_Table B_ may also be applied to the important purpose of determining distances, making use of the ship’s own mast as the given height or side of the triangle, by marking upon it any of the heights expressed in the table, and placing an observer there when required to measure the angle A B C (_vide fig._) formed by the mast when most perpendicular, and the line of sight B C.

[Illustration: (triangle A B C)]

“_The Tangent practice Tables_ C, D, and E will frequently be found useful in pointing ordnance, when the distance is known; for by referring to that distance in the column of the table belonging to the corresponding nature of gun, the part, that should be aimed at, will be ascertained.”

TABLE A.

Heights above the water of the different parts of French ships of War, and their masts, according to the following Rates:

+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------+ | | Line of battle Ships. | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | | | 120. | 100. | 90. | 86. | 82. | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in.| | _Port-sills_: | | | | | | | Of lower deck | 5 3 | 7 10 | 6 7 | 5 8 | 5 8 | | Middle | 13 1 | | | | | | Upper | 19 4 | 15 1 | 14 9 | 12 9 | 12 9 | | Quarter | 25 7 | 21 3 | 19 8 | 19 2 | 19 2 | | _After-part_: | | | | | | | Of poop plank sheer | 35 5 | 29 2 | 29 6 | 25 4 | 25 4 | | _Mainmast_: | | | | | | | Upper side of mainyard | 79 0 | 77 1 | 76 5 | 71 0 | 66 0 | | Under side of maintop | 93 6 | 91 10 | 90 2 | 84 0 | 78 0 | | Upper side of cap to mainmast |109 6 |109 10 |108 3 |101 0 | 94 0 | | Upper side of maintopsail-yard|148 7 |140 9 |141 0 |139 0 |130 0 | | ” Crosstrees to maintopmast |158 5 |150 11 |150 11 |148 0 |138 0 | | ” Cap to maintopmast |166 4 |161 8 |158 9 |156 0 |147 0 | | Head of topgallant rigging |190 7 |185 4 |185 4 |183 0 |170 0 | | Truck |219 9 |212 7 |201 9 |205 0 |192 5 | | _Foremast_: | | | | | | | Upper side of foreyard | 72 10 | 72 2 | 71 2 | 64 0 | 61 0 | | Under side of foretop | 86 7 | 84 11 | 83 7 | 77 0 | 72 0 | | Upper side of cap to foremast |103 0 |101 8 |100 0 | 92 0 | 87 0 | | ” Foretopsail-yard |136 5 |128 11 |129 7 |128 0 |117 0 | | ” Crosstrees to foretopmast |145 8 |139 1 |137 9 |136 0 |126 0 | | ” Cap to foretopmast |153 6 |148 11 |145 0 |144 0 |135 0 | | Head to topgallant rigging |173 10 |170 3 |169 7 |168 0 |156 0 | | Truck |200 1 |194 10 |184 8 |188 0 |176 0 | | _Mizenmast_: | | | | | | | Upper side of crossjack-yard | 73 1 | 71 10 | 70 2 | 64 0 | 61 0 | | Under side of mizentop | 83 4 | 83 7 | 81 4 | 75 0 | 71 0 | | Upper side of cap to mizenmast| 93 6 | 96 5 | 93 9 | 85 0 | 82 0 | | ” Mizentopsail-yard |121 4 |116 9 |117 1 |110 0 |107 0 | | ” Crosstrees to mizentopmast|127 11 |125 11 |122 4 |117 0 |112 0 | | Head of topgallant rigging |154 2 |150 11 |145 8 |143 0 |136 0 | | Truck |177 9 |171 7 |158 9 |160 0 |153 0 | +-------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+--------------------------------+---------------+----------+-------+ | | Frigates. |Corvettes.| Brigs.| | +-------+-------+----------+-------+ | | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | Guns. | | | 60. | 44. | 24. | 18. | | +-------+-------+----------+-------+ | | ft.in.| ft.in.| ft.in. | ft.in.| | _Port-sills_: | | | | | | Of lower deck | | | | | | Middle | | | | | | Upper | 6 6¾| 6 11 | 5 10 | 4 3 | | Quarter | 13 9 | 13 4 | 12 0 | | | _After-part_: | | | | | | Of poop plank sheer | | | | | | _Mainmast_: | | | | | | Upper side of mainyard | 67 0 | 59 0 | 41 0 | 39 0 | | Under side of maintop | 79 0 | 70 0 | 49 0 | 47 0 | | Upper side of cap to mainmast | 95 0 | 84 0 | 59 0 | 56 0 | | Upper side of maintopsail-yard |131 0 |114 0 | 79 0 | 72 0 | | ” Crosstrees to maintopmast |139 0 |121 0 | 85 0 | 77 0 | | ” Cap to maintopmast |148 0 |128 0 | 89 0 | 81 0 | | Head of topgallant rigging |171 0 |151 0 | 104 0 | 96 0 | | Truck |187 9 |168 6 | 120 7 |112 0 | | _Foremast_: | | | | | | Upper side of foreyard | 67 0 | 51 0 | 34 0 | 34 0 | | Under side of foretop | 73 0 | 63 0 | 43 0 | 41 0 | | Upper side of cap to foremast | 88 0 | 76 0 | 53 0 | 50 0 | | ” Foretopsail-yard |118 0 |101 0 | 70 0 | 66 0 | | ” Crosstrees to foretopmast |127 0 |109 0 | 76 0 | 70 0 | | ” Cap to foretopmast |136 0 |116 0 | 81 0 | 75 0 | | Head to topgallant rigging |157 0 |136 0 | 95 0 | 89 0 | | Truck |172 1 |152 0 | 109 6 |103 6 | | _Mizenmast_: | | | | | | Upper side of crossjack-yard | 62 0 | 52 0 | 32 0 | | | Under side of mizentop | 72 0 | 62 0 | 39 0 | | | Upper side of cap to mizenmast | 83 0 | 71 0 | 47 0 | | | ” Mizentopsail-yard |108 0 | 94 0 | 56 0 | | | ” Crosstrees to mizentopmast |113 0 | 99 0 | 61 0 | | | Head of topgallant rigging |137 0 |120 0 | 74 0 | | | Truck |150 0 |133 6 | 85 0 | | +--------------------------------+-------+-------+----------+-------+

TABLE B.

Angles subtended by the Mainmasts of French ships of war, between the water-line and the truck, also between the water-line and the crosstrees, at distances in yards, and in cables’ length; the eye of the observer being twenty feet above the water.

+--------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | LINE OF BATTLE SHIPS. | | DISTANCES. +---------------+---------------+---------------+ | | 120 Guns. | 90 Guns. | 82 Guns. | +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.| | | |219 9 |158 5 |201 9 |150 11 |192 5 |138 0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- | | | | of |topmast| of |topmast| of |topmast| | |Cables’| main- | cross-| main- | cross-| main- | cross-| |Yards.|length.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.| +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | | 120 | ½ | 32 14 | 24 13 | 29 59 | 23 3 | 28 47 | 21 11 | | 240 | 1 | 17 7 | 12 29 | 15 46 | 11 50 | 15 4 | 10 54 | | 360 | 1½ | 11 33 | 8 22 | 10 37 | 7 56 | 10 8 | 7 38 | | 480 | 2 | 8 42 | 6 17 | 7 59 | 5 57 | 7 38 | 5 29 | | 600 | 2½ | 6 59 | 5 2 | 6 24 | 4 46 | 6 7 | 4 23 | | 720 | 3 | 5 49 | 4 12 | 5 20 | 3 59 | 5 6 | 3 39 | | 840 | 3½ | 4 59 | 3 36 | 4 35 | 3 24 | 4 22 | 3 8 | | 960 | 4 | 4 22 | 3 9 | 4 1 | 2 59 | 3 49 | 2 44 | | 1080 | 4½ | 3 53 | 2 48 | 3 34 | 2 42 | 3 24 | 2 26 | | 1200 | 5 | 3 30 | 2 31 | 3 21 | 2 23 | 3 4 | 2 12 | | 1320 | 5½ | 3 11 | 2 17 | 2 55 | 2 10 | 2 47 | 2 0 | | 1440 | 6 | 2 55 | 2 6 | 2 40 | 1 59 | 2 33 | 1 50 | +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+--------------+-------------------------------+ | | FRIGATES. | | DISTANCES. +---------------+---------------+ | | 60 Guns. | 44 Guns. | +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.| | | |187 9 |139 0 |168 6 |121 0 | | | | | | | | | | | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- | | | | of |topmast| of |topmast| | |Cables’| main- | cross-| main- | cross-| |Yards.|length.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.| +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | | 120 | ½ | 28 11 | 21 12 | 25 37 | 18 51 | | 240 | 1 | 14 43 | 10 55 | 13 15 | 9 35 | | 360 | 1½ | 9 54 | 7 19 | 8 54 | 6 24 | | 480 | 2 | 7 27 | 5 30 | 6 41 | 4 48 | | 600 | 2½ | 5 58 | 4 23 | 5 21 | 3 51 | | 720 | 3 | 4 58 | 3 39 | 4 28 | 3 13 | | 840 | 3½ | 4 16 | 3 8 | 3 50 | 2 45 | | 960 | 4 | 3 44 | 2 44 | 3 21 | 2 24 | | 1080 | 4½ | 3 19 | 2 26 | 2 59 | 2 9 | | 1200 | 5 | 2 59 | 2 12 | 2 41 | 1 55 | | 1320 | 5½ | 2 43 | 2 0 | 2 26 | 1 45 | | 1440 | 6 | 2 29 | 1 50 | 2 14 | 1 36 | +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+--------------+---------------+---------------+ | | CORVETTES. | BRIGS. | | DISTANCES. +---------------+---------------+ | | 24 Guns. | 18 Guns. | +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in.| | | |120 7 | 85 0 |112 0 | 77 0 | | | | | | | | | | | Truck | Main- | Truck | Main- | | | | of |topmast| of |topmast| | |Cables’| main- | cross-| main- | cross-| |Yards.|length.| mast. | trees.| mast. | trees.| +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | ° ′ | | 120 | ½ | 18 50 | 13 25 | 17 31 | 12 11 | | 240 | 1 | 9 34 | 6 45 | 8 52 | 6 7 | | 360 | 1½ | 6 24 | 4 30 | 5 56 | 4 5 | | 480 | 2 | 4 48 | 3 23 | 4 27 | 3 4 | | 600 | 2½ | 3 51 | 2 42 | 3 34 | 2 27 | | 720 | 3 | 3 13 | 2 15 | 2 58 | 2 3 | | 840 | 3½ | 2 45 | 1 56 | 2 33 | 1 45 | | 960 | 4 | 2 24 | 1 41 | 2 14 | 1 32 | | 1080 | 4½ | 2 9 | 1 30 | 1 59 | 1 22 | | 1200 | 5 | 1 55 | 1 21 | 1 47 | 1 14 | | 1320 | 5½ | 1 45 | 1 14 | 1 37 | 1 7 | | 1440 | 6 | 1 36 | 1 8 | 1 29 | 1 1 | +------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

TABLE C.

Tangent practice with 8-inch Guns, weighing 65, and 60 cwt., carrying a single shot weighing 56 lb., or a shell weighing 56 lb., and charged with 10 lb. of powder. The line of sight is parallel to the axis of the bore, and the gun is 5 feet 4 inches above the level of the water.

TABLE D.

Tangent practice with a long 24-Pr. Gun with 1 solid shot and a charge of 8 lb. of powder, or with a long 18-Pr. charge 6 lb., from the maindeck of a Frigate of the first class; the height of the Gun above the surface of the water being 9 ft.

+---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+ | | | Height | | |Distance | Take |of parts | Point at the undermentioned | |in yards.| aim. |aimed at.| parts of Frigates of 44 guns. | +---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+ | 297 | P. B. | .. | At part intended to hit. | | | | | | | 402 |} | 14 ft. | At the level of the quarterdeck, | | |} | | gangway, and forecastle. | | 508 |} | 22 | At bulwark rail of quarterdeck, gangway,| | |} | | and forecastle. | | 614 |} By | 33 | At 4 feet below the centre of mainmast, | | |} using | | reckoning from the deck to the | | |} sight | | mainyard; centre of foremast; 20 feet | | |} para- | | below crossjack-yard. | | 720 |} llel | 47 | At 13 feet below mainyard; 5 feet below | | |} to | | foreyard; 6 feet below crossjack-yard.| | 790 |} bore. | 61 | At under part of mainyard; 3 feet below | | |} | | foretop; 2 feet below mizentop. | | 860 |} | 77 | At rail of maintop-bulwark; forecap; 5 | | |} | | feet over mizencap. | | 930 |} | .. | Point at part intended to hit. | | | | | | | 1000 |} | 35 | At 2 feet below half-way from deck to | | |} | | mainyard; 2 feet above half-way from | | |} | | deck to foreyard; centre of mizenmast.| | 1060 |} | 51 | At 9 feet below mainyard; under part of | | |} | | foreyard; 1 foot below crossjack-yard.| | 1120 |} *By | 68 | At 3 feet under maintop; rather better | | |} using | | than half-way between foretop and | | |} the | | forecap; half-way between mizentop | | |} line | | and mizencap. | | 1180 |} of | 86 | At cap of mainmast; 8 feet over forecap;| | |} metal.| | 3 feet under half-way from mizencap to| | |} | | topsail-yard (hoisted). | | 1240 |} | 106 | At centre-way between maincap and | | |} | | topmast-crosstrees; 4 feet over | | |} | | foretopsail-yard (hoisted); cap of | | |} | | mizentopmast. | | 1299 |} | 130 | At maintopmast cap; 7 feet under head | | |} | | of foretopgallant rigging. | +---------+--------+---------+-----------------------------------------+

With 2 shot the elevation must be nearly double that which, with 1 shot, and the same charge of powder, produces the same range.

The angles of elevation, corresponding to the ranges, increase, by quarter degrees, from point blank.

* The reason for transferring the sight to the line-of-metal is, obviously, to use the dispart elevation for the purpose of getting a more direct view.

_Vide_ Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75.

TABLE E.

Tangent practice with short 24, and 18-Prs., with 1 solid shot and a charge of ¼th the shot’s weight, from the maindeck of a 2nd class Frigate; the height of the Gun above the surface of the water being 7 feet 6 inches.

+--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+ |Distance| | Height | | | in | Take |of parts | Point at the undermentioned | | yards. | aim. |aimed at.| parts of Frigates of 44 guns. | +--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+ | 221 | P. B. | ft. in. | Point at part intended to hit. | | 312 |} | 11 6 | At 2 feet below the level of the | | |} | | quarterdeck, gangway, and forecastle. | | 403 |} | 18 6 | At bulwark rail of quarterdeck, gangway, | | |} | | and forecastle. | | 494 |} | 26 6 | At 6 feet over the upper part of hammocks | | |} By | | stowed in quarterdeck, gangway, &c. | | 582 |} sight | 37 6 | At 2 feet under centre of mainmast, | | |} para- | | reckoning from top of hammocks to | | |} llel | | mainyard: 2 feet over corresponding | | |} to | | mark in foremast. | | 644 |} axis | 50 | At 8 feet under mainyard; 1 foot under | | |} of | | foreyard; crossjack-yard. | | 706 |} bore. | 62 | At 2 feet under half-way from mainyard to | | |} | | maintop; 1 foot under foretop; mizentop.| | 768 |} | 78 | At half-way from maintop to maincap; 2 | | |} | | feet over forecap; 7 feet over mizencap.| | 832 |} | 94 | At 10 feet over maincap or one-third up | | | | | to the topmast, reckoning from cap to | | | | | topsail-yard, (hoisted); 6 feet under | | | | | foretopsail-yard, hoisted; | | | | | mizentopsail-yard. | | 907 | . . | . . | Point at part intended to hit. | | 982 |} | 20 6 | At upper part of the hammocks stowed in | | |} | | quarterdeck, forecastle, nettings, &c. | | 1057 |} | 35 6 | At 4 feet under centre of mainmast, | | |} | | reckoning from top of hammocks to | | |} | | mainyard; centre of foremast. | | 1133 |} *By | 51 | At 7 feet under mainyard; foreyard; | | |} the | | crossjack-yard. | | 1177 |} line | 69 | At 1 foot under maintop; centre between | | |} of | | foretop and forecap; 2 feet under | | |} metal.| | mizencap. | | 1221 |} | 87 | At 3 feet over maincap; 1 foot under | | |} | | centre between maincap and topsail-yards| | |} | | (hoisted up); 4 feet under centre of | | |} | | mizentop-sail. | | 1265 |} | 106 |At 8 feet under maintopsail-yard (hoisted);| | |} | | 3 feet under foretopmast crosstrees; 1 | | |} | | foot over mizentopmast cap. | | 1308 |} | 127 | At 1 foot under maintopmast cap; 9 feet | | | | | under the head of foretopgallant- | | | | | rigging; 7 feet over the head of | | | | | mizentopgallant-rigging. | +--------+--------+---------+-------------------------------------------+

With 2 shot the elevation must be nearly double that which, with 1 shot, and the same charge of powder, produces the same range.

The angles of elevation, corresponding to the ranges, increase, by quarter degrees, from point blank.

* The reason for transferring the sight to the line-of-metal is, obviously, to use the dispart elevation for getting a more direct view.

_Vide_ Tables of Practice, &c., pages 74, 75.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE EXERCISE, AND SERVICE OF GREAT GUNS, AND SHELLS ON BOARD HER MAJESTY’S SHIPS.

POSITIONS. (_Vide Plate._)

Before loading. Loading. Training.

_Gun Numbers._

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

_Auxiliaries._

7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, &c.

_Handspike-men._

9, 10.

_Rear-men._

12, The right rear-man. 13, The left rear-man, or the two highest numbers.

_Words of command._

“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—“Fire.”—“Stop the vent.”—“Sponge.”—“Load.”—“Run out.”

_Number of Men allowed to the following Broadside guns._

----------------+---------+---------+-------+---------------- Nature of Gun. | Weight. | Length. |Number | Carriage. | | |of men.| ----------------+---------+---------+-------+---------------- | cwt. | Feet. | | 8-inch. | 65 | 9 | 14 |} These guns {| 56 | 9½ | 13 |} are {| 50 | 9 | 12 |} mounted on 32 Pounder. {| 45 | 8½ | 11 |} common {| 42 | 8 | 10 |} carriages. {| 32 | 6½ | 9 | } Mounted on {| 25 | 6 | 8 | } Hardy’s 32 Pr. Carronade| 17 | 4 | 7 | } carriages. ----------------+---------+---------+-------+----------------

[Illustration: POSITIONS.

_Before Loading._ _Loading._ _Training._

Stationary Powderman Stationary Powderman Stationary Powderman Extra Powderman

_J. W. Lowry, sc._]

EXERCISE WITH 13 MEN, _to a Lower deck gun_.

No.

1. The Captain;—commands, attends the breeching, bed, and quoin, primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

2. The second Captain;—assists No. 1, casts loose, hauls up the port, runs out, attends the apron, and port tackle-fall, and cocks the lock.

3. Takes out the tompeon, bears out the port, loads, rams home, runs out, and trains.

4. Takes out the tompeon, bears out the port, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out, and trains.

5. Casts loose, hauls up the port, gives shot and wad to No. 3, runs out, trains, and spans the breeching.

7, and 8. Cast loose, run out, and train.

9, and 10. Cast loose, run out, and attend handspikes.

11. Casts loose, runs out, and trains.

12. Casts loose, and attends train tackle.

13. Casts loose, runs out, trains, and fires with a hammer, or match.

_Note._—The duties of No. 2 for upper, or main deck guns will be the same as that for lower deck guns, omitting the words “haul up the port,” and “attends port tackle-fall.” The duties likewise of Nos. 3, and 4 will be the same, substituting the words “takes off the upper half-port,” “lets down the lower one,” or “takes out the port” (as the case may be) for “bears out the port.” The duties also of Nos. 5, and 6 will be the same, omitting the words “hauls up the port.”

Handspike-men with 5, 6, or 7 men Nos. 5, and 6 ” ” 8 or 9 men ” 7, and 8 ” ” 10 or 11 men ” 7, and 8 and assistant handspike-men ” 9, and 2 Handspike-men with all Nos. above 11 ” 9, and 10 and assistant handspike-men ” 11, and 2

With light guns it may be advantageous, in some cases, to double man the handspikes.

The left rear-man will always fire with a hammer, or match; and the right rear-man will attend the train tackle, except when he is handspikeman (when No. 2 will attend it), and in lower deck exercise (when the left rear-man will attend it).

At the word “_Man both sides_,” each watch will repair to its respective side, the odd numbers standing to the left of the left guns; even numbers to the right of the right guns.

“MAN BOTH SIDES.”

_Left guns._—No. 3 remains 3; 5 becomes 4; 7—6; 9—5; 11—2; 13—7; 1 remains 1.

_Right guns._—No. 4 remains 4; 6 becomes 3; 8—6; 10—5; 12—2; 2—1.

_Note._—The left guns are odd starboard, and even port. The right guns are even starboard, and odd port. The odd numbered guns’ crews are taken from the starboard watch; the even numbered from the port watch.

Guns’ crews always man, and powder boys always supply adjacent guns, when clearing for action, or when fighting both sides.

_Note._—With a crew of 11 men, and upwards, and both sides manned, No. 2 is _always_ to attend the train tackle.

When casualties occur at the guns, those holding the highest numbers, or those _last_ placed, will be the first to move to fill up the vacancies, excepting that where both captains are removed, the officer will name the most fitting person to become No. 1, filling up the vacancy as above. For instance; if there should be 13 men at the gun, and Nos. 3, 6, and 9, are ordered to “fall out,” Nos. 5, and 7, move up, becoming Nos. 3, and 5; No. 11, moves up, and becomes No. 7; No. 13,—No. 9; No. 8 moves up, and becomes No. 6; No. 10,—No. 8; and No. 12,—No. 10.[32]

EXERCISE WITH 7 MEN, _to a 32-pounder carronade_.

No.

1. The Captain; commands, attends the breeching, primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

2. The second Captain; assists No. 1, casts loose, runs out, attends the apron, and elevating screw, cocks the lock, and attends train-tackle.

3. Takes out the tompeon, takes off the upper half-port, lets down the lower one, loads, rams home, runs out, and trains.

4. Takes out the tompeon, takes off the upper half-port, lets down the lower one, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out, trains, and attends compressor, when the gun is out.

5. Casts loose, gives shot, and wad to No. 3, runs out, trains, and spans the breeching.

6. Casts loose, gives sponge, rammer, and worm to No. 4, runs out, trains, spans the breeching, and attends compressor, when the gun is in.

7. Casts loose, runs out, trains, and fires with a hammer, or match.

_Note._—Handspikes are used with all guns, and sometimes with carronades.

The duties with 9 men at the 32 cwt., and 8 men at the 25 cwt. guns are the same as with the 32-pounder carronade, except that No. 8 attends the compressor, instead of No. 6.

ARRANGEMENT FOR FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

When ordered to quarters, each watch will take its respective side; when the crew will assume the Nos. to which the several duties, prescribed for working the guns, are assigned.

In the event of being attacked on both sides, at the same time, the following distribution is to be made, where 6 men, and upwards, besides the powderman, can be allowed to each gun, and its opposite, viz.:—

FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ | With 6 men, | With 8 men, | With 10 men, | With 12 men, | | and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.| +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | 3 ┃ 4 | | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖6 | ‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | 5‖┃‖6 | | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖2 | ‖┃‖2 | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | | | | |Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-|Powder-| | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | man. | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | ‖┃‖ | 2‖┃‖ | 2‖┃‖ | 2‖┃‖7 | | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | | ‖┃‖ | 6‖┃‖ | 6‖┃‖ | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | 6‖┃‖5 | | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | ┃ | | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3| 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | 4 ┃ 3 | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | With 7 men, | With 9 men, | With 11 men, | With 13 men, | | and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.| and powderman.| +---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

The guns are to be worked in pairs, commencing from forward; Nos. 1, and 2 guns on each side will be pairs, and so on, up to the highest even numbered gun on the deck; but the aftermost (if it should be an odd numbered gun) must be worked by its own crew passing from side to side, as necessary. When exercising, until the crews are perfect, and steady, the orders should be given by the officer, who is in charge of the quarters, and the left guns should be fired first. But when the men are perfect, the guns, which are first ready, should be first fired, and the exercise should be conducted by the captains of the guns, having reference to the movements of the other gun of their pairs, in order to approximate the exercise, as nearly as possible, to action with an enemy. All shot practice at targets, with both sides manned, is to be conducted on this plan.

_Words of command for_ FIGHTING BOTH SIDES.

“Man both sides.”—“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Muzzle to the right.”—“Muzzle to the left.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—(_Left guns._)—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Right guns._)—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Left guns._)—“Run out.”—“Fire.”—“Sponge, and load.”—(_Right guns._)—“Run out.”—“Fire.”—“Cease firing.”

When ordered to “cease firing,” the guns are to be loaded, and run out.[33]

EXERCISE FOR THE 10-INCH, OR OTHER REVOLVING GUN, _with a crew of 17 men_.

The crew are assembled as in the established Gun exercise; then—

Gun.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Auxiliaries.—Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.

Traversing tackle-men.—Nos. 7, 8.

Handspike-men.—Nos. 9, 10. Assistant handspike-men.—Nos. 11, 12.

Compressor men, Nos. 13, 14.

Rear-men.—No. 16, the right rear-man. No. 17, the left rear-man.

No. 1. The Captain. No. 4. Sponger. ” 2. Second Captain. ” 5. Assistant loader. ” 3. Loader. ” 6. Assistant sponger.

_Words of command._

“Traverse.”[34]—“Prime.”—“Point.”—“Elevate.”—“Ready.”—“Fire.”—“Stop the vent.”—“Sponge.”—“Load.”—“Run out.”

_Exercise with 17 men._

No.

1. The Captain; commands, attends the breeching, bed, and quoin, primes, points, fires, and stops the vent.

2. Second Captain; assists No. 1, casts loose, runs out, attends the apron, cocks the lock, and attends rear bolt.

3. Takes out the tompeon, loads, rams home, runs out, attends fighting bolt, shackles, and unshackles breeching, if necessary.

4. Takes out the tompeon, worms, sponges, rams home, runs out, attends stop-handspike, shackles, and unshackles breeching, if necessary.

5. Casts loose, runs out, traverses, and spans the breeching.

6. Casts loose, gives sponge, rammer, and worm to No. 4, runs out, traverses, and spans the breeching.

7, and 8. Cast loose, run out, attend traversing tackles, and shift side tackles.

9, 10, 11, and 12. Cast loose, run out, and attend handspikes.

13, and 14. Cast loose, run out, traverse, and attend compressors.

15. Casts loose, runs out, and traverses.

16. Casts loose, traverses, shifts traversing-tackle, brings up shot, or shell, attends stop-handspike, and train-tackle.

17. Casts loose, traverses, shifts traversing-tackle, brings up shot, or shell, fires with a hammer, or match, and attends train tackle.

N.B. These numbers will be reduced for lighter guns, as may be necessary, when Nos. 11, and 12, will attend compressors, and the rear-men will do the duties of No. 16, and 17. When slide-guns are fitted with Ferguson’s Compressor, No. 6 is to attend to it.

On coming to the gun, one, or other of these orders will follow; viz.,—“Action on the rear bolt,” or “Action on the fighting bolt required.”

No. 2, attends the rear, No. 3, the fighting bolt, No. 1 gives the word “Right, or left traverse;” and when bearing on the object, or when on the fighting bolt required “Well:” the gun is then to be wormed, sponged, loaded, and run out, without further orders.

MORTAR EXERCISE.

Mortars—13-inch Land service—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. ” 10-inch ” ” ” 1, - 3, 4, 5, 6. ” 8-inch ” ” ” 1, - 3, 4, - 6.

_Words of command._

“Point.”—“Run the mortar up.”—“Cross lift the mortar to the right.”—“Cross lift the mortar to the left.”—“Muzzle to the right.”—“Muzzle to the left.”—“Down.”—“Load.”—“Prime.”—“Fire.”

_13-inch Land service Mortar._

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands, points, and serves the vent.

2. Serves ammunition.

3. Loads, assists to put in the shell, runs up, and trains.

4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuse, puts in shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

5. Assists to bring up shell, runs up, trains, and fires.

6. Brings up shell, guides it into the mortar, runs up, trains, and primes.

_10-inch Land service Mortar._

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands, points, and serves the vent.

3. Serves ammunition, loads, assists to put in shell, runs up, and trains.

4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts in shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

5. Assists to bring up shell, runs up, trains, and fires.

6. Brings up shell, runs up, trains, and primes.

_8-inch Land service Mortar._

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands, primes, points, and serves the vent.

3. Serves ammunition, loads, runs up, and trains.

4. Sponges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts in shell, runs up, trains, and attends sheepskin.

6. Brings up shell, and fires.

TO DISMOUNT A 13-INCH LAND SERVICE MORTAR, with any number of men, not less than 14.

_Duties._—No. 1. Commands.

2. Assists No. 1, and lashes handspikes.

3, and 4. Unlash the quoin, and place handspikes in the mortar.

5, and 6. Bring up a drag-rope each, and place the loop ends over the handspikes.

All the Nos. man the dragropes, except Nos. 3, and 4, who attend with their handspikes, and raise the mortar perpendicular; then Nos. 3, and 4 steady the mortar, place the dragropes round the body of the mortar, and take out the handspikes and quoin; Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 unscrew, and take out the cap-squares. All the numbers man the dragropes, except Nos. 3 and 4, and throw the mortar to the rear. If it does not fall on its face, Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes under the trunnions (Nos. 5, and 6 the bight of the dragropes under the trunnions) and raise the mortar on its face; then Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes on the trunnions; Nos. 5, and 6 place the loop ends round the handspikes, and trunnions; even Nos. go to the front, and odd Nos. to the rear, and turn the mortar round. Nos. 5, and 6 place their dragropes over the opposite bolts of the mortar bed; Nos. 3, and 4 assist with their handspikes. All the Nos., at right angles to each other, turn the mortar bed round, and run it close up to the mortar.

TO MOUNT THE MORTAR.

Nos. 3, and 4 place their handspikes under the trunnions, and on the top steps of the mortar bed; Nos. 5, and 6 place their dragropes round the trunnions, and throw the mortar into the trunnion boxes: the mortar is raised perpendicular, as before. All the Nos. will do what they have undone; even Nos. go to the front, odd Nos. to the rear, and ease the mortar down.

N.B. The cap-squares are not to be shifted over till the mortar is raised perpendicular.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LANDING SEAMEN, AND MARINES, WITH FIELD PIECES.

_For Exercise, or Service on shore_.

1. The boats should be formed in divisions, according to the seniority of the Captains of their respective ships, numbering from No. 1, on the right. The seamen, and marines should be told off in companies previous to leaving their ships, and on landing they will form immediately in the same order.

2. Each division of boats should have a distinguishing flag. Launches will carry two scaling ladders, intrenching tools, &c.; barges, and pinnaces, one ladder each.

3. The boats will always land a boat’s length apart. Before leaving the ships, two boat keepers for each boat, and an officer in charge of each division of boats are to be told off, and are on no account to leave them.

A fast-pulling boat with medical officers will attend in rear of the line.

4. Should the distance from the point of landing be considerable, the boats of each division, in tow of each other, commencing with the lightest boats, will pull in,—the leading boat of each division abreast, leaving space for the whole to form line abreast when ordered.

The boats will be dressed in line, as well as circumstances will admit. The officer in command will commence firing from the gun-boats when he thinks fit, but no shells, Shrapnell shells, or musketry are to be fired without orders.

5. When the commanding officer perceives the beach to be cleared (or when he considers it proper) he will order the boats to advance; they will pull in immediately, and land their crews, and field pieces, the latter will be formed on the flanks of their own division, or in batteries, according to orders; the scaling ladders in the rear until required for service.

6. The launches’ crews may be employed in throwing up a breast-work, and placing their guns in it, to cover their re-embarkation, should it become necessary.

7. Should the boats be employed for the disembarkation of troops, the same arrangement as to the divisions of boats should remain. It will then be desirable that every boat should carry a flag similar to that of the commanding officer of its division, and, when in large numbers, the boats should also be painted according to the colours of the flags, that the troops may readily know their own boats.

On these occasions, the launches, barges, and pinnaces will form a front line, so as to clear the beach; the light boats will tow troop boats, paddle box boats, &c., and be ready to succour any boats that may be damaged by the enemy’s fire.

The orders, as to the firing of musketry, should be strictly enjoined, as before, with the seamen, and marines. It would be better that no musket should be loaded, and no knapsacks taken.

Proportion of Charges, Spare powder, &c., for a 51 Gun, screw, steam Frigate; and 50 Gun Frigate.

KEY: A = Number. B = Proportion for each Gun. C = Total number of Cartridges. D = Number in each case. E = Number of cases.

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 51 Gun, screw, steam Frigate. | +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+ | Nature | | | | | | | | | of | A | Charge.| B | C | D | E | Spare powder. | | Ordnance.| | | | | | | | +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+ | 68 Pr. | 1 | Distant| 120 | 120 | 6 | 20 | 20 rounds per gun, | | 95 cwt. | | 16 lb.| | | | | full charges, as | | | | Full | 60 | 60 | 11 | 7 | spare; amounting | | | | 10 lb.| | | | | to 200 lb. | | | | | | | | | | | 8 in. Gun | 12 | Reduced| 20 | 240 | 15 | 16 | 20 rounds per gun, | | 65 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, | | | | Full | 40 | 480 | 14 | 34½ | as spare; | | | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to | | | | Distant| 20 | 240 | 11 | 22 | 1200 lb. | | | | 10 lb.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 32 Pr. | 18 | Reduced| 40 | 720 | 19 | 38 | 20 rounds per gun, | | 58 cwt. | | 6 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, | | | | Full | 20 | 360 | 14 | 26 | as spare; | | | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to | | | | Distant| 20 | 360 | 11 | 33 | 2160 lb. | | | | 10 lb.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 32 Pr. | 20 | Reduced| 30 | 600 | 22 | 27½ | 20 rounds per gun, | | 45 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, | | | | Full | 50 | 1000| 16 | 62½ | as spare; | | | | 7 lb. | | | | | amounting | | | | | | | | | to 2000 lb. | | 24 Pr. | | | | | | | | | Howitzer | 2 | 2½ lb. | 174 | 348 | 20* | 17† | | | 12½ cwt. | | | | | | +--------------------+ | | | | | | | |2 half-cases of | | 12 Pr. | | | | | | | bursters, (10 oz., | | Howitzer | 2 | 1¼ lb. | 174 | 348 | 40* | 9‡ | 6 oz., 5½ oz., and | | 6 cwt. | | | | | | | 4½ oz.,) and two | | | | | | | | |half-cases of fuses.| +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+ Remarks. This spare powder would amount to 5560 pounds, and would be packed in 15 pound bags, 8 in a case, and would stow in 47 cases.

* In a half-case. † Half-cases, and a quarter-case. ‡ Half-cases.

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 50 Gun Frigate. | +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+ | Nature | | | | | | | | | of | A | Charge.| B | C | D | E | Spare powder. | | Ordnance.| | | | | | | | +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+ | 8 in. Gun | 8 | Reduced| 20 | 160 | 15 | 11 | 20 rounds per gun, | | 65 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, | | | | Full | 40 | 320 | 14 | 23 | as spare; | | | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to | | | | Distant| 20 | 160 | 11 | 15 | 800 lb. | | | | 10 lb.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 32 Pr. | 22 | Reduced| 40 | 880 | 19 | 46 | 20 rounds per gun, | | 56 cwt. | | 6 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, | | | | Full | 20 | 440 | 14 | 32 | as spare; | | | | 8 lb. | | | | | amounting to | | | | Distant| 20 | 440 | 11 | 40 | 2640 lb. | | | | 10 lb.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 32 Pr. | 20 | Reduced| 30 | 600 | 22 | 27½| 20 rounds per gun, | | 45 cwt. | | 5 lb. | | | | | reduced charges, | | | | Full | 50 | 1000| 16 | 62½| as spare; | | | | 7 lb. | | | | | amounting to | | | | | | | | | 2000 lb. | | 24 Pr. | | | | | | +--------------------+ | Howitzer | 2 | 2½ lb. | 174 | 348 | 20* | 17† |2 half-cases of | | 12½ cwt. | | | | | | | bursters, (10 oz.,| | | | | | | | | 6 oz., 5 oz., and | | 12 Pr. | | | | | | | 4½ oz.,) and 2 | | Howitzer | 2 | 1¼ lb. | 174 | 348 | 40* | 9‡ | half-cases of | | 6 cwt. | | | | | | | fuses. | +-----------+----+--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------------------+ * In a half-case. † Half-cases, and a quarter-case. ‡ Half-cases.

ON NAVAL BOMBARDMENTS.[35]

“The attack of fortresses, and powerful land batteries with a naval force only, must ever be a hazardous, and perhaps desperate undertaking. But if skilfully combined with a military force sufficiently strong to make good its landing, to invest the place, or the batteries on the land side, to take the defences in reverse, and so open the way to the attack by sea, the object of the attack will in general be successful. But this mode of proceeding can only be applied when the place to be attacked occupies a position, insular or otherwise, of such extent as to admit of being attacked by land as well as by sea. When the place, fortress, or arsenal to be attacked is covered and protected by isolated points of defence, mutually protecting each other, and when no previous military operation can be made, those points or outposts should be attacked in detail, and successively reduced; after which the fleet may arrive at, and attack the main position. This must evidently be a protracted and difficult process, even with such means: with ships alone, it cannot be effected without severe loss, and damages: and it should always be remembered that many of the attacking ships would be severely injured, probably disabled, in the attempt, whilst the enemy’s fleet would remain untouched, and in reserve. It would, therefore, follow that the attacking fleet must be exposed to a very disadvantageous action with the enemy, in the event of the latter subsequently leaving his place of shelter.

“When the fortress, or arsenal to be attacked is situated on a coast which may be approached from the open sea in any direction, steam-ships may avoid the danger of a direct attack, end-on, or oblique, by approaching the place on either, or perhaps on both sides; and, having gained the proper proximity, clear of raking, or diagonal fire, range quickly up in parallel order, to attack the place in line, or lines; as in steam warfare, ship against ship, or fleet against fleet, direct advances upon the broadside batteries of ships, may, upon the same principle be avoided, and the enemy attacked in parallel order, by ranging up to him, and forced to fight if the attacking ships are superior in speed.

“But when the fortress, arsenal, or place to be attacked is only approachable by a narrow and intricate channel, through which ships can only pass singly, or nearly so, there can be no manœuvering for position. There is no way of avoiding being met by direct, then oblique, and ultimately raking fire from the batteries that defend the channel, and steam can only perform its office of propulsion into or through those intricacies under these disadvantageous, and hazardous circumstances. Steam-ships might, indeed, run past advanced, or covering batteries at full speed, without being much damaged; but it would be extremely perilous to leave such forts unsilenced in their rear, and, unless the daring enterprise should succeed, like Nelson’s, at Copenhagen, to produce a cessation of hostilities, the fleet, or at least any disabled ships, could never get out again.

“However successful a naval attack of a fortress, or arsenal may be, the work of destruction can never be effectually accomplished by ships. The sea defences may be silenced, guns dismounted, parapets ruined, magazines blown up by mortar shells, and habitations devastated by the cruel process of bombardment; but no substantial demolition of the defences, or material destruction of public works and property, can be effected, unless the partial and rather temporary than permanent damages inflicted by the attacks of ships be followed up and completed, by having actual possession of the captured place for a sufficient time to ruin it entirely. No naval operation, however skilfully planned, and gallantly executed, can, in this way, reap the fruits of its own victory.

“In the desultory operations of small active steamers employed to shell, with their pivot guns, open towns, roadsteads, harbours, and slender buildings, magazines, stores, &c., &c., or to shell bodies of troops on shore, the attacking vessels should never anchor, but having given their end-on fire, go off at speed to reload, and prepare to take up the fire in turn with others, whenever they regain a favourable position for a good effect. To hit a steamer running with speed across a line of fire is no easy matter (Arts. 331, 341); and when in the end-on position, she presents but a small target to hit at a long range.”