Part 37

AUTHORITIES.--The great original work on the history of the Dutch East India Company is the monumental _Beschryving van oud en niew oost Indien_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724), by Francois Valentyn, in 8 vols., folio, profusely illustrated. Two modern works of the highest value are: J.K.J. de Jonge, _De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag in oost Indien_ (The Hague and Amsterdam, 1862-1888), in 13 vols.; J. J. Meinsma, _Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche oost-Indische Bezittingen_ (3 vols., Delft and the Hague, 1872-1875). See also John Crawford, _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (Edinburgh, 1820); Clive Day, _The Dutch in Java_ (New York, 1904); Sir W.W. Hunter, _A History of British India_ (London, 1899); and Pierre Bonnassieux, _Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce_ (Paris, 1892).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Linschoten was born at Haarlem in or about 1563. He started his travels at the age of sixteen and, after some years in Spain, went with the Portuguese East India fleet to Goa, where he arrived in September 1583, returning in 1589. In 1594 and 1595 he took part in the Dutch Arctic voyages, and in 1598 settled at Enkhuizen, where he died on the 8th of February 1611. His _Navigatio ac itinerarium_ (1595-1596) is a compilation based partly on his own experiences,

## partly on those of other travellers with whom he came in contact. It

was translated into English and German in 1598; two Latin versions appeared in 1599 and a French translation in 1610. The famous English version was reprinted for the Hakluyt Society in 1885. Large selections, with an Introduction, are published in C. Raymond Beazley's _Voyages and Travels_, vol. ii. (_English Garner_, London, 1903).

DUTCH LANGUAGE. When the Romans reached the territory now forming the kingdom of Holland, they found a number of tribes south of the Rhine, who--though here and there mixed with Germans--belonged to a non-Germanic race, and who, closely related to the Belgian tribes, spoke a language belonging to the Celtic group. Possibly they were also situated on the more elevated grounds north of the Rhine, at least vestiges of them may still be traced. We do not know anything about their being mixed with or subdued by the intruding German tribes. We can only guess it.

At that time the fertile delta of the Rhine was already occupied by German tribes who in language and national customs must have stood in some relation to the tribes living along the Rhine in Germany, later called Franks. The consonantal system of their language was in accordance with the other Low-German dialects, which is proved by the remains we have in the glosses of the Lex Salica, for the greater part handed down in a bad condition. These tribes, whom we shall take together under the name of Low-Franks--the Romans called them Batavi, Caninefates, Chamavi, &c.--were spread over Gelderland, Overysel, part of Utrecht and South Holland, and the south-western part of North Holland. When in the sixth century allied tribes from the present north Germany, who named themselves Saxons after one of those tribes living alongside the Elbe, conquered the territory occupied by the Franks a great many retreated from the eastern parts, and then the Franks, who already in the time of the Romans had begun to invade into the territory of the Belgian tribes, continued their wars of conquest in a southward direction and subdued all the land south of the branch of the Rhine that is called the "Waal." Since that time the Frankish dialect came there, and the Celtic-speaking population of the south suffered its language to be entirely supplanted by that of the conquerors. Hence in the formerly Celtic-speaking parts of Brabant and Limburg we find but Frankish dialects, somewhat corresponding with those of part of Gelderland, Utrecht and Holland. The deviation that is perceptible concerns less the use of words than the way of laying the stress.

In part of Gelderland, east of the Ysel, and in Overysel, the older Frankish dialect (of the Salian Franks) was given up and the language of the victorious Saxons was assumed, perhaps here and there strongly mixed with the older language. The language which is spoken there, and farther to the north through Drente as far as in some parts of Groningen, is called Saxon. Indeed, these dialects correspond in a great many respects with the language of the Old-Saxon poem Heliand (q.v.) and with the North-German dialects--from the latter they deviate considerably in some respects. The chief point of conformity is the formation of the plural of the verb: _wi loopt, wi gat_, _Heliand_: _wi hlopad, wi gangad_, which are _wei loopen, wei gaan_ in the Frankish dialects. In the vocal system, too, there are peculiar differences.

In the north of Holland there lived, and still lives alongside the coast, a tribe with which Caesar did not come in contact. The Frisians were spread over a large distance along the shore as far as the mouth of the Elbe, and in the west at least as far as the country north of Haarlem. In the time of the Romans they cannot have extended their power farther southward. Later, however, this seems to have been the case. Maerlant and Melis Stoke (13th century) tell us that time was when their power extended even over part of Flanders. About the year 339 they were repelled as far as the mouth of the Meuse, and ever afterwards the Franks, led by their counts, pushed their dominion back farther and farther to the north, as far as the country north of Alkmaar. After all, a great many Frisian peculiarities may be perceived in the language of the country people of the parts which were once in their power.

To begin with the south: in Zeeland the population has quite given up the former probably non-Germanic language. Frisian influence is still perceptible in many words and expressions, but for all that the language has lost the Frisian character and assumed the nature of the neighbouring Frankish dialects in the present Belgium and Brabant. If it was then influenced by the south, later it was influenced rather by the language of Holland. Farther to the north Frisian elements may be perceived in Holland at the seashore and also in many respects still in North Holland. The real Frisian tongue has only been preserved in the province of Friesland, where intrusion of the dialect spoken in Holland is already perceptible since the 13th century. With the Frisian tongue this formed a new dialect in the towns, the "Stadfriesch," whereas the country people in the villages and the peasants have preserved the old Frisian tongue as "Boerenfriesch."

The more eastward dialects of Frisian in Groningen, the eastern part of Friesland (_Stellingawerf_) and West-Drente were first strongly mixed with Saxon; at the same time we find a strong mixture of Frisian and Saxo-Frankish east of the Zuider Zee. Later the Saxon dialect of the town of Groningen, once the capital of East-Drente, became prominent over the whole province.

In all parts, however, the language of Holland, mixed with and changed by the living speech, is getting more and more influence, issuing from the towns and large villages.

This influence over the whole country began at the opening of the 17th century, and, in connexion with the prevalent written language, gradually produced a colloquial language, deviating from the written language as well as from the native idioms of the country, though assuming elements from both. In this colloquial speech the idiom of Holland forms the basis, whereas the written language formed itself on quite different principles.

If we compare the colloquial speech and the native idiom with the written language, we find remarkable differences, which are caused by the origin of the Dutch written language.

The first to write in any of the idioms of the Dutch language, if we leave apart the old version of the psalms in East Low Frankish, was an inhabitant of the neighbourhood of Maastricht, Henrik van Veldeke, who wrote a Servatius legend and an _Aeneid_; the latter we only know by a Mid High German copy. This dialect deviates from the western dialects and has likeness to the Middle-Frankish. His work had no influence whatever on the written language.

In the west of Belgium, in the districts of Antwerp, East and West Flanders and Brabant, great prosperity and strong development of commerce caused a vivid intellectual life. No wonder we find there the first writings in the West-Low-Frankish native idiom. This language spread over the neighbouring districts. At least in 1254 we find the same language used in the statute (i.e. privilege) of Middelburg.

In those parts a great deal was written in poetry and prose, and the writings in this language are known under the name of Middle-Dutch literature.

If originally the south took the lead in all departments, later the north gradually surpasses the south, and elements from the northern native idiom begin to intrude into the written language.

North of the Meuse and the Rhine little was written as yet in the 13th century. Not until about 1300 does literary life begin to develop here (Melis Stoke's _Rijmcronijk_), and these writings were written in the language of the south with slight deviations here and there. Chancery and clergy had taken a written language to the north, deviating considerably from the native idiom in vogue there, which belonged to the Frisio-Frankish idioms. So this written language gradually spread over the west of the Netherlands and Belgium. The east of the Netherlands agreed in its chancery style more with the districts of Low Germany.

There was a great difference between the written language and the dialect spoken on the banks of the Y. This becomes quite conspicuous if we compare what Roemer Visscher, Coster, Bredero borrow from their native idiom with the language of Huygens or Cats, in the latter of which the southern elements predominate, mixed with the dialects of Zeeland and Holland. Vondel, too, in his first period was influenced by the idiom of Brabant. Only after 1625 does he get on more familiar terms with the Amsterdam dialect. In the various editions of his poems it may be seen how not only loan-words, but also words belonging to the southern idiom, are gradually replaced by other words, belonging to the vocabulary of North Holland, and still to be heard.

The written language passed from the south to the north, and, considerably changed at Amsterdam, was also assumed in the other provinces in the 17th century, after the Union of Utrecht. In the north, in Groningen and Friesland, the official writings and laws were still noted down in a Frisian or Saxo-Frisian idiom as late as the 15th and 16th centuries. When the contact with Holland grew stronger, and the government officials ever and again came in contact with Holland, chancery, too, gradually assumed the Holland idiom. The same took place in the eastern provinces.

This, however, did not yet make the written language popular, which did not happen before the population of the Dutch provinces got its _Statenbybel_, the well-known authorized version of the Bible, made at Dordrecht between 1626 and 1637.

By the frequent use of this so-called _Statenvertaling_ the language of Holland obtained its vogue in all provinces on the point of religion, and many expressions, borrowed from that Bible, were preserved in the native idiom.

By the remarkable vicissitudes of these parts from the earliest time up to the moment when Holland became an independent kingdom, during which alternately German elements under the Bavarian counts and French influences under the Burgundian princes were predominant, and also later in the 16th and 17th centuries elements from these languages were mixed with the language in common use. Moreover, various words passed from the eastern languages into Dutch by the colonial and commercial connexions, while at the same time many words were borrowed from Latin, the language of the learned people, especially in the 16th century, and from French, under the influence of the poetic clubs of the 17th and 18th centuries. In the time of the rhetoricians, in the 16th century, and of Coornhert, as well as in the days of Bredero, Hooft and Vondel, we repeatedly find opposition against these foreign words, often successful, so that in 1650 Vondel could say: "_Onze spraak is sedert weinige jaren herwaart van bastaard-woorden en onduitsch allengs geschuimt._"[1] Some people, e.g. Hooft, went even so far as to make very clumsy versions of Latin and French bastard words, handed down of old.

Under the influence of the club "_Nil Volentibus Arduum_" and the predominant literary clubs of the 18th century, people became inclined towards expressing their thoughts as much as possible in pure Dutch. Therefore a large number of rules were given, with respect to prose as well as to poetry, in consequence of which the written language grew very stiff in choice of words and forms, and remains so till the latter half of the 19th century. The obtrusion of the French language during the reign of Napoleon had no effect. But the subsequent union of Holland and Belgium strengthened the French element, especially in the higher ranks of society. King William I. had tried to make Dutch more popular in Belgium by a general teaching of the Dutch language. When north and south were separated, the French became predominant in the south. Only in the Flemish provinces of Belgium the people tried to preserve the native idiom and to do away with French words. These endeavours, called "De Vlaamsche beweging", begun by F. v. Willems, Heremans and others in the south, were supported in the north by Professor de Vries at Leiden. In order to get a pure Dutch language, the idea of composing a general Dutch dictionary was introduced. M. de Vries and his partner L. te Winkel, however, did not begin this task before having given a new formulation of the rules for spelling. These rules, deviating in many respects from the spelling then in vogue, introduced by Siegenbeek in 1806, have been predominant up to the present moment. Since 1891 Dr R. A. Kollewyn and Dr F. Buitenrust Hettema have been engaged in trying to bring about a simplification in the spelling. As this simplification is not generally considered efficient, their principles are not yet generally adopted; see for instance C.H. den Hertog, _Waarom onaannemelyk?_ (Groningen, 1893).

Excepting Belgium (Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant) the Dutch language is heard outside Holland in Dutch East India and in the West Indies. In East India pure Dutch has been preserved, though some Javanese and Malay bastard words may have slipped in by the habit of speaking to the population in the Malay tongue or in the native idiom. Hence no Indo-Dutch was formed there. This is different in the West Indies, where a great number of negro words and English words as well as English syntactical constructions have slipped in.

In the 17th century a number of Dutchmen, for the greater part from Holland and Zeeland, under Jan van Riebeek, had settled in South Africa, in Cape Town, where the Dutch navigation called into being a Dutch port. In course of time they were joined there by French emigrants (most of them Huguenots who left their country about 1688 and joined with other Huguenots from Holland in assuming the Dutch language), perhaps also by Portuguese and by Malay people, who, together with the English who settled there and after 1820 became numerous in Cape Colony, mixed some peculiarities of their language with the Dutch idioms. Thus in the first half of the 18th century the language arose which is now called the South African Dutch. Since 1880 the present Dutch language has became more frequently used in official writings, though with certain adaptations agreeably to the native idiom.

In order to offer an example of the Middle-Dutch language beside the present language, we give here a single strophe from Maerlant's _Wapene Martyn_, with a metrical translation in modern Dutch from the pen of Nikolaas Beets (1880).

God, diet al bi redene doet, | God, die het al met wijsheid doet, Gaf dat wandel ertsche goet | Gaf dit verganklijk aardsche goed Der menschelt gemene, | Den menschen in't gemeen, Dattere mede ware gevoet, | Op dat zij zouden zijn gevoed, Ende gecleet, ende gescoet, | Het lijf gekleed, geschoeid de voet Ende leven soude rene. | En leven rein van zeen. Nu es giericheit so verwoet, | Maar zie nu hoe de hebzucht woedt Dat elc settet sinen moet | Dat iedereen in arren moed Om al te hebbene allene. | 't Al hebben wil alleen' Hieromme stortmen menschenbloet, | Hierom vergiet men menschenbloed Hieromme stichtmen metter spoet | En bouwt met roekeloozen spoed Borge ende hoge stene | Burchtsloten, zwaar van steen, Menegen te wene. | Tot smart van menigeen.

_A Survey of the Sounds used in Dutch._--_The Consonants._ As regards the consonants, Dutch in the main does not differ from the other Low German languages. The explosive _g_ and the _th_ are wanting. Instead of the former there is a _g_ with "fricative" pronunciation, and as in High German the _th_ has passed over into _d_.

The final consonants in Middle Dutch are sharpened, and the sharp sounds are graphically represented; in Modern Dutch, on the other hand, the historical development of the language being more distinctly kept in view, and the agreement observed with the inflexional forms, the soft consonant is written more frequently than it is sounded; thus we have Middle Dutch _dach_, Modern Dutch _dag_, in analogy with the plural _dagen_.

The gutturals are _g_, _k_, _ch_ and _h_.

_G_ is the soft spirant, not used in English. In Middle Dutch this letter was also indicated by _gh_. _K_ was pronounced like English _k_. In Middle Dutch _c_ was sometimes used instead of _k_; now this is no longer done.

_Ch_ (pronounced as German _ch_ without the _i_-sound, not as English _ch_) loses its sound when combined with _s_ to _sch_ at the end of a syllable, for instance, _vleesch_, but the _s_-sound is not purely dental as in _dans_. As an initial consonant _sch_ is nearly pronounced as _sg_ (_schip_, English ship); only in Frisian and Saxon dialects the old consonant _sk_ in _skip_, _skool_ is retained.

_H_ has the same pronunciation as in English.

The dentals are _d_ and _t_. The _d_ is formed by placing the point of the tongue against the upper teeth. At the end of a word _d_ is sharpened into _t_, but written _d_, for instance, _goed_, pronounced _gut_. In the idiom of the east of the Netherlands final _d_ is preserved. When between two vowels after _oe_ (Engl. _o_ in do), _o_, or _ui_, _d_ is not pronounced, though it is written. After it has been left out, a _j_-sound has developed between the two vowels, so, for instance, _goede_ became first _goe:e_ and then _goeje_. Thus it is pronounced, though it is still spelled _goede_. After _ou d_ disappeared and _ou_ became _ouw_, for instance _koude > kouw_.

_T_ has the same pronunciation as in English. In some dialects final _t_ is dropped, for instance, _heef_ for _heeft_, _nie_ for _niet_.

_S_ has the pronunciation of English _s_ in sound, _z_ that of English _z_ in hazel; only in _zestig_ and _zeventig z_ has the pronunciation of _s_.

The labials are _b_, _f_, _v_, _p_.

At the beginning and in the body of a word _b_ has the same sound as in English. At the end of a word, when shortened from _bb_, followed by a vowel, it became _p_ in the pronunciation, so older _krabbe_ became _krabb_, _krab_ (the present spelling), which is now pronounced _krap_.

_F_ has the same pronunciation as English _f_. In many cases older initial _f_ passed into _v_, hence most words which have _f_ in English have initial _v_ in Dutch, for instance _vader_, _vol_, _vechten_.

This _v_, initial and between vowels, has the pronunciation of English _v_ in lover. Dutch _p_ is the same as English _p_, also the liquids and nasals.

The _w_ in Dutch is mostly labiodental; in the eastern parts before vowels bilabial pronunciation is heard.

_Vowels._--_A_ has in open syllables the sound of English _a_ in father, in closed syllables that of English _a_ in ass, but more open; when there is a clear sound in closed syllables the spelling is _aa_ (_jaar_), in open syllables _a_ (_maken_), pronounced as _a_ in ask; in _bad_, _nat_, _a=a_. An original short _a_ and a long _a_ in open syllables are even in Middle Dutch pronounced alike, and may be rhymed with each other (_dagen_, _lagen_, a rhyme which was not permitted in Middle High German). In the Saxon dialects _a_ was expressed by _ao_, _a_ or _a_ in the Frisio-Saxon districts passes into _e_ before _r_, as _jer_ (_jaar_). Middle Dutch preserved _a_ in several words where in Modern Dutch it passes into _e_ before _r_ (_arg_, _erg_; _sarc_, _zerk_; _warf_, _werf_); in others, as _aarde_, _staart_, _zwaard_, the Middle Dutch had _e_ and _a_ (_erde_, _stert_, _swert_, _swart_, _start_; Modern Dutch _zwaard_, _staart_). In foreign words, likewise, _e_ before _r_ has become _a_; _paars_, _perse_; _lantaarn_, _lanterne_ (in the dialects _e_ is still frequently retained).

_E._ The sound of the _e_ derived from _a_ does not differ from that of an original _e_, or of an _e_ derived from _i_, as they appear in open syllables (_steden_, _vele_, pronounced as _a_ in English name). If the _e_ derived from _a_ or _i_ or the original _e_ occurs in closed syllables, it has a short sound, as in English men, end, Modern Dutch _stem_. The _e_ in closed syllables with a full sound (as English _a_; Sweet, _ei_) is spelled _ee_: _veel_, _week_ (_e_ from _i_), _beek_. The sharp, clear _ee_ is indicated by the same letters in both open and closed syllables: _eer_, _sneeuw_, _zee_.

In some dialects this _ee_ is pronounced like English _ee_, not only in the present dialects, but also in the 17th century.

The pronunciation of _ei_ (from _ai_, or _eg_: _ag_, French _ai_, _ei_, _ee_) is that of English _i_, for instance, Dutch _ei_, English egg, is pronounced like English _I_.

_I_ is pronounced short (somewhat like _i_ of English pit), for instance in _pit_, _binden_, _sikkel_; it has a clear sound in _fabrikant_, though it has no stress.

_Ie_ is pronounced like English _ee_ in see, but somewhat shorter; so, _fabriek_, _fabrieken_, _Pieter_; also in _bieden_, _stierf_, &c. For original long _i_, Middle Dutch _ii_ and _ij_, afterwards _y_, was used. This vowel, though still written _y_, is pronounced like English _i_ in I, like; so in _sysje_ (English siskin), _lyken_, &c.