Part 1

# Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Bradford, William" to "Brequigny, Louis": Volume 4, Slice 4 ### By Various

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE BRAIN: "The cough, the eye-closure, the impulse to smile, all these can be suppressed." 'impulse' amended from 'impluse'.

ARTICLE BRAIN: "The deep ends of these olfactory neurones having entered the central nervous organ come into contact with the of large neurones, called, from their shape, mitral." 'dendrites' amended from 'dentrites'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME IV, SLICE IV

Bradford, William to Brequigny, Louis

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

BRADFORD, WILLIAM (governor) BRAOSE, WILLIAM DE BRADFORD, WILLIAM (printer) BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND BRADFORD, WILLIAM (painter) BRAS D'OR BRADFORD (England) BRASDOR, PIERRE BRADFORD (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) BRASIDAS BRADFORD CLAY BRASS (Nigeria) BRADFORD-ON-AVON BRASS (alloy) BRADLAUGH, CHARLES BRASSES, MONUMENTAL BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES BRADLEY, JAMES BRASSEY, THOMAS BRADSHAW, GEORGE BRASSO BRADSHAW, HENRY (English poet) BRATHWAIT, RICHARD BRADSHAW, HENRY (British scholar) BRATIANU, ION C. BRADSHAW, JOHN BRATLANDSDAL BRADWARDINE, THOMAS BRATTISHING BRADY, NICHOLAS BRATTLEBORO BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN DE BRAUNAU BRAEMAR BRAUNSBERG BRAG BRAVO BRAGA BRAWLING BRAGANZA BRAY, SIR REGINALD BRAGG, BRAXTON BRAY, THOMAS BRAGI BRAY (England) BRAHAM, JOHN BRAY (Ireland) BRAHE, PER BRAYLEY, EDWARD WEDLAKE BRAHE, TYCHO BRAZIER BRAHMAN BRAZIL (legendary island) BRAHMANA BRAZIL (republic) BRAHMANISM BRAZIL (Indiana, U.S.A.) BRAHMAPUTRA BRAZIL NUTS BRAHMA SAMAJ BRAZIL WOOD BRAHMS, JOHANNES BRAZING AND SOLDERING BRAHUI BRAZZA, PIERRE PAUL SAVORGNAN DE BRAID BRAZZA BRAIDWOOD, THOMAS BREACH BRAILA BREAD BRAIN BREADALBANE, JOHN CAMPBELL BRAINERD, DAVID BREADALBANE BRAINERD BREAD-FRUIT BRAINTREE (Essex, England) BREAKING BULK BRAINTREE (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) BREAKWATER BRAKE (town of Germany) BREAL, MICHEL JULES ALFRED BRAKE (engineering) BREAM BRAKELOND, JOCELYN DE BREAST BRAMAH, JOSEPH BREAUTE, FALKES DE BRAMANTE BRECCIA BRAMPTON, HENRY HAWKINS BRECHIN BRAMPTON BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL BRAMWELL, GEORGE WILLIAM BRAMWELL BRECON BRAN (Welsh hero) BRECONSHIRE BRAN (husk of cereals) BREDA BRANCH BREDAEL, JAN FRANS VAN BRANCO BREDERODE, HENRY BRANCOVAN BREDOW, GOTTFRIED GABRIEL BRAND, JOHN BREDOW BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY BREECH BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS BREEDS AND BREEDING BRANDENBURG (Prussian electorate) BREEZE BRANDENBURG (Prussian province) BREGENZ BRANDENBURG (town of Germany) BREHON LAWS BRANDER, GUSTAVUS BREISACH BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN BREISGAU BRANDING BREISLAK, SCIPIONE BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST BREITENFELD BRANDON (Canada) BREMEN (German state) BRANDON (England) BREMEN (German city) BRANDY BREMER, FREDRIKA BRANDYWINE BREMERHAVEN BRANFORD BRENDAN BRANGWYN, FRANK BRENHAM BRANKS BRENNER PASS BRANT, JOSEPH BRENNUS BRANT, SEBASTIAN BRENTANO, KLEMENS BRANTFORD BRENTANO, LUDWIG JOSEPH BRANTINGHAM, THOMAS DE BRENTFORD BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLE BRENTON, SIR JAHLEEL BRANTOME BRENTWOOD BRANXHOLM BRENZ, JOHANN BRANXTON BREQUIGNY, LOUIS GEORGES FEUDRIX DE

BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1590-1657), American colonial governor and historian, was born in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, probably in March 1590. He became somewhat estranged from his family, which was one of considerable importance in the locality, when in early youth he joined the Puritan sect known as Separatists, and united in membership with the congregation at Scrooby. He prepared in 1607, with other members of the church, to migrate to Holland, but the plan was discovered and several of the leaders, among them Bradford, were imprisoned. In the year following, however, he joined the English colony at Amsterdam, where he learned the trade of silk weaving. He subsequently sold his Yorkshire property and embarked in business on his own account at Leiden, where the English refugees had removed. He became an active advocate of the proposed emigration to America, was one of the party that sailed in the "Mayflower" in September 1620, and was one of the signers of the compact on shipboard in Cape Cod Bay. After the death of Governor John Carver in April 1621, Bradford was elected governor of Plymouth Colony, and served as such, with the exception of five years (1633, 1634, 1636, 1638 and 1644) until shortly before his death. After 1624, at Bradford's suggestion, a board of five and later seven assistants was chosen annually to share the executive responsibility. Bradford's rule was firm and judicious, and to his guidance more than to that of any other man the prosperity of the Plymouth Colony was due. His tact and kindness in dealing with the Indians helped to relieve the colony from the conflicts with which almost every other settlement was afflicted. In 1630 the council for New England granted to "William Bradford, his heires, associatts, and assignes," a new patent enlarging the original grant of territory made to the Plymouth settlers. This patent Bradford in the name of the trustees made over to the body corporate of the colony in 1641. Bradford died in Plymouth on the 9th of May 1657. He was the author of a very important historical work, the _History of Plimouth Plantation_ (until 1646), first published in the _Proceedings_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society for 1856, and later by the state of Massachusetts (Boston, 1898), and in facsimile, with an introduction by John A. Doyle, in 1896. The manuscript disappeared from Boston during the War of Independence, was discovered in the Fulham library, London, in 1855, and was returned by the bishop of London to the state of Massachusetts in 1897. This work has been of inestimable value to writers on the history of the Pilgrims, and was freely used, in manuscript, by Morton, Hubbard, Mather, Prince and Hutchinson. Bradford was also undoubtedly part author, with Edward Winslow, of the "Diary of Occurrences" published in Mourts' _Relation_, edited by Dr H.M. Dexter (Boston, 1865). He also wrote a series of _Dialogues_, on church government, published in the Massachusetts Historical Society's Publications (1870.)

For Bradford's ancestry and early life see Joseph Hunter, _Collections concerning the Founders of New Plymouth_, in Massachusetts Historical Society's _Collections_ (Boston, 1852); also the quaint sketch in Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a chapter in Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901).

BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663-1752), American colonial printer, was born in Leicestershire, England, on the 20th of May 1663. He learned the printer's trade in London with Andrew Sowle, and in 1682 emigrated with William Penn to Pennsylvania, where in 1685 he introduced the "art and mystery" of printing into the Middle Colonies. His first imprint was an almanac, _Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense or America's Messenger_ (1685). At the outset he was ordered "not to print anything but what shall have lycence from ye council," and in 1692, the colony then being torn by schism, he issued a tract for the minority sect of Friends, whereupon his press was seized and he was arrested. He was released, however, and his press was restored on his appeal to Governor Benjamin Fletcher. In 1690, with William Rittenhouse (1644-1708) and others, he established in Roxboro, Pennsylvania, now a part of Philadelphia, the first paper mill in America. In the spring of 1693 he removed to New York, where he was appointed royal printer for the colony, a position which he held for more than fifty years; and on the 8th of November 1725 he issued the first number of the _New York Gazette_, the first paper established in New York and from 1725 to 1733 the only paper in the colony. Bradford died in New York on the 23rd of May 1752.

His son, ANDREW SOWLE BRADFORD (1686-1742), removed from New York to Philadelphia in 1712, and there on the 22nd of December 1719 issued the first number of the _American Weekly Mercury_, the first newspaper in the Middle Colonies. Benjamin Franklin, for a time a compositor in the office, characterized the paper as "a paltry thing, in no way interesting"; but it was continued for many years and was edited by Bradford until his death.

The latter's nephew, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1722-1791), established in December 1742 the _Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser_, which was for sixty years under his control or that of his son, and which in 1774-1775 bore the oft-reproduced device of a divided serpent with the motto "Unite or Die." He served in the War of American Independence, rising to the rank of colonel. His son, WILLIAM BRADFORD (1755-1795), also served in the War of Independence, and afterwards was attorney-general of Pennsylvania (1791), a judge of the supreme court of the state, and in 1794-1795 attorney-general of the United States.

BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827-1892), American marine painter, was born at New Bedford, Massachusetts. He was a Quaker, and was self-taught, painting the ships and the marine views he saw along the coast of Massachusetts, Labrador and Nova Scotia; he went on several Arctic expeditions with Dr Hayes, and was the first American painter to portray the frozen regions of the north. His pictures attracted much attention by reason of their novelty and gorgeous colour effects. His "Steamer 'Panther' in Melville Bay, under the Light of the Midnight Sun" was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London in 1875. Bradford was a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, and died in that city on the 25th of April 1892. His style was somewhat influenced by Albert van Beest, who worked with Bradford at Fairhaven for a time; but Bradford is minute and observant of detail where van Beest's aim is general effect.

BRADFORD, a city, and municipal, county and parliamentary borough, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 192 m. N.N.W. of London and 8 m. W. of Leeds. Pop. (1891) 265,728; (1901) 279,767. It is served by the Midland and the North Eastern railways (Midland station), and by the Great Northern and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways (Exchange station). It lies in a small valley opening southward from that of the Aire, and extends up the hills on either side. Most of the principal streets radiate from a centre between the Midland and Exchange stations and the town hall. This last is a handsome building, opened in 1873, surmounted by a bell tower. The exterior is ornamented with statues of English monarchs. The council-chamber contains excellent wood-carving. The extension of the building was undertaken in 1905. The parish church of St Peter is Perpendicular, dating from 1485, and occupies the site of a Norman church. Its most noteworthy feature is the fine original roof of oak. There was no other church in the town until 1815, but modern churches and chapels are numerous. Among educational institutions, the grammar school existed in the 16th century, and in 1663 received a charter of incorporation from Charles II. It occupies a building erected in 1873, and is largely endowed, possessing several scholarships founded by prominent citizens. The technical college, under the corporation since 1899, was opened in 1882. A mechanics' institute was founded in 1832, and in 1871 the handsome mechanics' hall, close to the town hall, was opened. Other establishments are the Airedale College of students for the Independent ministry, and the United Independent College (1888). The general infirmary is the principal of numerous charitable institutions. The most noteworthy public buildings beside the town hall are St George's hall (1853), used for concerts and public meetings, the exchange (1867), extensive market buildings, and two court-houses. The Cartwright memorial hall, principally the gift of Lord Masham, opened in 1904 and containing an art gallery and museum, commemorates Dr Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) as the inventor of the power-loom and the combing-machine. The hall stands in Lister Park, and was opened immediately before, and used in connexion with, the industrial exhibition held here in 1904. The Temperance hall is of interest inasmuch as the first hall of this character in England was erected at Bradford in 1837. Some of the great warehouses are of considerable architectural merit. Statues commemorate several of those who have been foremost in the development of the city, such as Sir Titus Salt, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham), and W.E. Forster. Of several parks the largest are Lister, Peel, and Bowling parks, each exceeding fifty acres. In the last is an ancient and picturesque mansion, which formerly belonged to the Bowling or Bolling family. A large acreage of high-lying moorland near the city is maintained by the corporation as a public recreation ground.

As a commercial centre Bradford is advantageously placed with regard to both railway communication and connexion with the Humber and with Liverpool by canal, and through the presence in its immediate vicinity of valuable deposits of coal and iron. The principal textile manufactures in order of importance are worsted, employing some 36,000 hands, females considerably outnumbering males; woollens, employing some 8000, silk and cotton. The corporation maintains a conditioning-hall for testing textile materials. A new hall was opened in 1902. Engineering and iron works (as at Bowling and Low Moor) are extensive; and the freestone of the neighbourhood is largely quarried, and in Bradford itself its use is general for building. It blackens easily under the influence of smoke, and the town has consequently a somewhat gloomy appearance. The trade of Bradford, according to an official estimate, advanced between 1836 and 1884 from a total of five to at least thirty-five millions sterling, and from not more than six to at least fifty staple articles. The annual turn-over in the staple trade is estimated at about one hundred millions sterling.

Bradford was created a city in 1897. The parliamentary borough returned two members from 1832 until 1885, when it was divided into three divisions, each returning one member. The county borough was created in 1888. Its boundaries include the suburbs, formerly separate urban districts, of Eccleshill, Idle and others. The corporation consists of a lord mayor (this dignity was conferred in 1907), 21 aldermen, and 63 councillors. One feature of municipal activity in Bradford deserves special notice--there is a municipal railway, opened in 1907, extending from Pateley Bridge to Lofthouse (6 m.) and serving the Nidd valley, the district from which the main water-supply of the city is obtained. Area of the city, 22,879 acres.

Bradford, which is mentioned as having belonged before 1066, with several other manors in Yorkshire, to one Gamel, appears to have been almost destroyed during the conquest of the north of England and was still waste in 1086. By that time it had been granted to Ilbert de Lacy, in whose family it continued until 1311. The inquisition taken after the death of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, in that year gives several interesting facts about the manor; the earl had there a hall or manor-house, a fulling mill, a market every Sunday, and a fair on the feast of St Andrew. There were also certain burgesses holding twenty-eight burgages. Alice, only daughter and heiress of Henry de Lacy, married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and on the attainder of her husband she and Joan, widow of Henry, were obliged to release their rights in the manor to the king. The earl of Lancaster's attainder being reversed in 1327, Bradford, with his other property, was restored to his brother and heir, Henry Plantagenet, but again passed to the crown on the accession of Henry IV., through the marriage of John of Gaunt with Blanche, one of the daughters and heirs of Henry Plantagenet. Bradford was evidently a borough by prescription and was not incorporated until 1847. Previous to that date the chief officer in the town had been the chief constable, who was appointed annually at the court leet of the manor. Before the 19th century Bradford was never represented in parliament, but in 1832 it was created a parliamentary borough returning two members. A weekly market on Thursdays was granted to Edward de Lacy in 1251 and confirmed in 1294 to Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, with the additional grant of a fair on the eve and day of St Peter ad Vincula and three days following. In 1481 Edward IV. granted to certain feoffees in whom he had vested his manor of Bradford a market on Thursday every week and two yearly fairs, one on the feast of the Deposition of St William of York and two days preceding, the other on the feast of St Peter in Cathedra and two days preceding.

From the mention of a fulling mill in 1311 it is possible that woollen manufacture had been begun at that time. By the reign of Henry VIII. it had become an important industry and added much to the status of the town. Towards the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century the woollen trade decreased and worsted manufacture began to take its place. Leland in his _Itinerary_ says that Bradford is "a praty quik Market Toune. It standith much by clothing." In 1773 a piece hall was erected and for many years served as a market-place for the manufacturers and merchants of the district. On the introduction of steam-power and machinery the worsted trade advanced with great rapidity. The first mill in Bradford was built in 1798; there were 20 mills in the town in 1820, 34 in 1833, and 70 in 1841; and at the present time there are over 300, of much greater magnitude than the earlier factories. In 1836 Mr (afterwards Sir) Titus Salt developed the alpaca manufacture in the town; mohair was shortly afterwards introduced; and the great works at Saltaire were opened (see SHIPLEY). Later, Mr S.C. Lister (Lord Masham) introduced the silk and velvet manufacture, having invented a process of manipulating silk waste, whereby what was previously treated as refuse is made into goods that will compete with those manufactured from the perfect cocoon.

See John James, _History of Bradford_ (1844, new and enlarged ed., 1866); A. Holroyd, _Collectanea Bradfordiana_ (1873); _Victoria County History--Yorkshire_.

BRADFORD, a city of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., near the N. border of the state, about 80 m. E. by S. of Erie. Pop. (1890) 10,514; (1900) 15,029, of whom 2211 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,544. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways, and is connected with Olean, New York, by an electric line. Bradford is situated 1427 ft. above sea-level in the valley of the Tuna, and is shut in by hills on either side. Since 1876 it has been one of the most important oil centres of the state, and it has been connected by pipe lines with cities along the Atlantic coast; petroleum refining is an important industry. Among the city's manufactures are boilers, machines, glass, chemicals, terra cotta, brick, iron pipes and couplings, gas engines, cutlery and silk. The place was first settled about 1827; in 1838 it was laid out as a town and named Littleton; in 1858 the present name, in honour of William Bradford (1755-1795), was substituted; and Bradford was incorporated as a borough in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879. Kendall borough was annexed to Bradford in 1893.

BRADFORD CLAY, in geology, a thin, rather inconstant bed of clay or marl situated in England at the base of the Forest Marble, the two together constituting the Bradfordian group in the Bathonian series of Jurassic rocks. The term "Bradford Clay" appears to have been first used by J. de. C. Sowerby in 1823 (_Mineral Conchology_, vol. v.) as an alternative for W. Smith's "Clay on Upper Oolite." The clay came into notice late in the 18th century on account of the local abundance of the crinoid _Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_. It takes its name from Bradford-on-Avon in Wiltshire, whence it is traceable southward to the Dorset coast and northward towards Cirencester. It may be regarded as a local phase of the basement beds of the Forest Marble, from which it cannot be separated upon either stratigraphical or palaeontological grounds. It is seldom more than 10 ft. thick, and it contains as a rule a few irregular layers of limestone and calcareous sandstone. The lowest layer is often highly fossiliferous; some of the common forms being _Arca minuta, Ostrea gregaria, Waldheimia digona, Terebratula coarctata, Cidaris bradfordensis_, &c.

See H.B. Woodward, "Jurassic Rocks of Britain," _Mem. Geol. Survey_, vol. iv. (1904).

BRADFORD-ON-AVON, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, on the rivers Avon and Kennet, and the Kennet & Avon Canal, 98 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4514. Its houses, all built of grey stone, rise in picturesque disorder up the steep sides of the Avon valley, here crossed by an ancient bridge of nine arches, with a chapel in the centre. Among many places of worship may be mentioned the restored parish church of Holy Trinity, which dates from the 12th century and contains some interesting monuments and brasses; and the Perpendicular Hermitage or Tory chapel, with a 15th or 16th century chantry-house. But most notable is the Saxon church of St Lawrence, the foundation of which is generally attributed, according to William of Malmesbury (1125), to St Aldhelm, early in the 8th century. It consists of a chancel, nave and porch, in such unchanged condition that E.A. Freeman considered it "the most perfect surviving church of its kind in England, if not in Europe." It has more lately, however, been held that the present building is not Aldhelm's, but a restoration, dating from about 975, and attributable to the influence of Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. Kingston House, long the seat of the dukes of Kingston, is a beautiful example of early 17th-century domestic architecture. The local industries include the manufacture of rubber goods, brewing, quarrying and iron-founding.

Bradford (Bradauford, Bradeford) was the site of a battle in 652 between Kenwal and his kinsman Cuthred. A monastery existed here in the 8th century, of which St Aldhelm was abbot at the time of his being made bishop of Sherborne in A.D. 705. In 1001 AEthelred gave this monastery and the town of Bradford to the nunnery of Shaftesbury, in order that the nuns might have a safe refuge against the insults of the Danes. No mention of the monastery occurs after the Conquest, but the nunnery of Shaftesbury retained the lordship of the manor until the dissolution in the reign of Henry VIII. In a synod held here in 954, Dunstan was elected bishop of Winchester. Bradford appears as a borough in the Domesday survey, and is there assessed at 42 hides. No charter of incorporation is recorded, however, and after returning two members to the parliament of 1295 the town does not appear to have enjoyed any of the privileges of a borough. The market is of ancient origin, and was formerly held on Monday; in the survey the tolls are assessed at 45 shillings. Bradford was at one time the centre of the clothing industry in the west of England, and was especially famous for its broadcloths and mixtures, the waters of the Avon being especially favourable to the production of good colours and superior dyes. The industry declined in the 18th century, and in 1740 we find the woollen merchants of Bradford petitioning for an act of parliament to improve their trade and so re-establish their credit in foreign markets.