Part 22

BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the district and province of same name, on the river Havel, 36 m. S.W. from Berlin, on the main line to Magdeburg and the west. Pop. (1905) 51,251, including 3643 military. The town is enclosed by walls, and is divided into three parts by the river--the old town on the right and the new town on the left bank, while on an island between them is the "cathedral town,"--and is also called, from its position, "Venice." Many of the houses are built on piles in the river. There are five old churches (Protestant), all more or less noteworthy. These are the Katharinenkirche (nave 1381-1401, choir c. 1410, western tower 1583-1585), a Gothic brick church with a fine carved wooden altar and several interesting medieval tombs; the Petrikirche (14th century Gothic); the cathedral (Domkirche), originally a Romanesque basilica (1170), but rebuilt in the Gothic style in the 14th century, with a good altar-piece (1465), &c., and noted for its remarkable collection of medieval vestments; the Gothardskirche, partly Romanesque (1160), partly Gothic (1348); the Nikolaikirche (12th and 13th centuries), now no longer used. There is also a Roman Catholic church. Of other buildings may be mentioned the former town hall of the "old town" (Altstadt Rathaus), built in the 13th and 14th centuries, now used as government offices; the new Real-gymnasium; and the town hall in the Neustadt, before which, in the market-place, stands a Rolandssaule, a colossal figure 18 ft. in height, hewn out of a single block of stone. A little north of the town is the Marienberg, or Harlungerberg, on which the heathen temple of Triglaff and afterwards the church and convent of St Mary were built. On the top stands a lofty monument to the soldiers from the Mark who fell in the wars of 1864, 1866 and 1870-71. The town has a considerable trade, with manufactures of woollens, silks, linens, hosiery and paper, as well as breweries, tanneries, boat-building and bicycle factories.

Brandenburg, originally _Brennaburg_ (_Brennabor_) or _Brendanburg_, was originally a town of the Slavic tribe of the Hevelli, from whom it was captured (927-928) by the German king Henry I. In 948 Otto I. founded a bishopric here, which was subordinated first to the archdiocese of Mainz, but from 968 onwards to the newly created archbishopric of Magdeburg. It was, however, destroyed by the heathen Wends in 983, and was only restored when Albert the Bear recaptured the town from them in 1153. In 1539 the bishop of Brandenburg, Matthias von Jagow, embraced the Lutheran faith, and five years later the Protestant worship was established in the cathedral. The see was administered by the elector of Brandenburg until 1598 and then abolished, its territories being for the most part incorporated in the electoral domains. The cathedral chapter, however, survived, and though suppressed in 1810, it was restored in 1824. It consists of twelve canons, of whom three only are spiritual, the other nine prebends being held by noblemen; all are in the gift of the king of Prussia.

The "old" and "new" towns of Brandenburg were for centuries separate towns, having been united under a single municipality so late as 1717.

See Schillmann, _Geschichte der Stadt Brandenburg_ (Brandenburg, 1874-1882).

BRANDER, GUSTAVUS (1720-1787), English naturalist, who came of a Swedish family, was born in London in 1720, and was brought up as a merchant, in which capacity he achieved success and became a director of the Bank of England. His leisure time was occupied in scientific pursuits, and at his country residence at Christchurch in Hampshire he became interested in the fossils so abundant in the clays of Hordwell and Barton. A set of these was presented by him to the British Museum, and they were described by D.C. Solander in the beautifully illustrated work entitled _Fossilia Hantoniensia collecta, et in Musaeo Britannico deposita a Gustavo Brander_ (London, 1766). Brander was elected F.R.S. in 1754, and he was also a trustee of the British Museum. He died on the 21st of January 1787.

BRANDES, GEORG MORRIS COHEN (1842- ), Danish critic and literary historian, was born in Copenhagen on the 4th of February 1842. He became a student in the university in 1859, and first studied jurisprudence. From this, however, his maturer taste soon turned to philosophy and aesthetics. In 1862 he won the gold medal of the university for an essay on _The Nemesis Idea among the Ancients_. Before this, indeed since 1858, he had shown a remarkable gift for verse-writing, the results of which, however, were not abundant enough to justify separate publication. Brandes, indeed, did not collect his poems till so late as 1898. At the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was much under the influence of the writings of Heiberg in criticism and Soren Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which have continued to leave traces on his work. In 1866 he took part in the controversy raised by the works of Rasmus Nielsen in a treatise on "Dualism in our Recent Philosophy." From 1865 to 1871 he travelled much in Europe, acquainting himself with the condition of literature in the principal centres of learning. His first important contribution to letters was his _Aesthetic Studies_ (1868), in which, in several brief monographs on Danish poets, his maturer method is already foreshadowed. In 1870 he published several important volumes, _The French Aesthetics of Our Days_, dealing chiefly with Taine, _Criticisms and Portraits_, and a translation of _The Subjection of Women_ of John Stuart Mill, whom he had met that year during a visit to England. Brandes now took his place as the leading critic of the north of Europe, applying to local conditions and habits of thought the methods of Taine. He became _docent_ or reader in _Belles Lettres_ at the university of Copenhagen, where his lectures were the sensation of the hour. On the professorship of Aesthetics becoming vacant in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would be appointed. But the young critic had offended many susceptibilities by his ardent advocacy of modern ideas; he was known to be a Jew, he was convicted of being a Radical, he was suspected of being an atheist. The authorities refused to elect him, but his fitness for the post was so obvious that the chair of Aesthetics in the university of Copenhagen remained vacant, no one else daring to place himself in comparison with Brandes. In the midst of these polemics the critic began to issue the most ambitious of his works, _Main Streams in the Literature of the Nineteenth Century_, of which four volumes appeared between 1872 and 1875 (English translation, 1901-1905). The brilliant novelty of this criticism of the literature of the chief countries of Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, and his description of the general revolt against the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century, at once attracted attention outside Denmark. The tumult which gathered round the person of the critic increased the success of the work, and the reputation of Brandes grew apace, especially in Germany and Russia. Among his later writings must be mentioned the monographs on _Soren Kierkegaard_ (1877), on _Esaias Tegner_ (1878), on _Benjamin Disraeli_ (1878), _Ferdinand Lassalle_ (in German, 1877), _Ludvig Holberg_ (1884), on _Henrik Ibsen_ (1899) and on _Anatole France_ (1905). Brandes has written with great fulness on the main contemporary poets and novelists of his own country and of Norway, and he and his disciples have long been the arbiters of literary fame in the north. His _Danish Poets_ (1877), containing studies of Carsten Hauch, Ludwig Bodtcher, Christian Winther, and Paludan-Muller, his _Men of the Modern Transition_ (1883), and his _Essays_ (1889), are volumes essential to the proper study of modern Scandinavian literature. He wrote an excellent book on _Poland_ (1888; English translation, 1903), and was one of the editors of the German version of _Ibsen_. In 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen and settled in Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic life of that city. His political views, however, made Prussia uncomfortable for him, and he returned in 1883 to Copenhagen, where he found a whole new school of writers and thinkers eager to receive him as their leader. The most important of his recent works has been his study of Shakespeare (1897-1898), which was translated into English by William Archer, and at once took a high position. It was, perhaps, the most authoritative work on Shakespeare, not principally intended for an English-speaking audience, which had been published in any country. He was afterwards engaged on a history of modern Scandinavian literature. In his critical work, which extends over a wider field than that of any other living writer, Brandes has been aided by a singularly charming style, lucid and reasonable, enthusiastic without extravagance, brilliant and coloured without affectation. His influence on the Scandinavian writers of the 'eighties was very great, but a reaction, headed by Holger Drachmann, against his "realistic" doctrines, began in 1885 (see DENMARK: _Literature_). In 1900 he collected his works for the first time in a complete and popular edition, and began to superintend a German complete edition in 1902.

His brother Edvard Brandes (b. 1847), also a well-known critic, was the author of a number of plays, and of two psychological novels: _A Politician_ (1889), and _Young Blood_ (1899).

BRANDING (from Teutonic _brinnan_, to burn), in criminal law a mode of punishment; also a method of marking goods or animals; in either case by stamping with a hot iron. The Greeks branded their slaves with a Delta, [Delta], for [Greek: doulos]. Robbers and runaway slaves were marked by the Romans with the letter F (_fur_, _fugitivus_); and the toilers in the mines, and convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were branded on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine the face was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on the hand, arm or calf. The canon law sanctioned the punishment, and in France galley-slaves could be branded "TF" (_travaux forces_) until 1832. In Germany, however, branding was illegal. The punishment was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, and the ancient law of England authorized the penalty. By the Statute of Vagabonds (1547) under Edward VI. vagabonds, gipsies and brawlers were ordered to be branded, the first two with a large V on the breast, the last with F for "fraymaker." Slaves, too, who ran away were branded with S on cheek or forehead. This law was repealed in 1636. From the time of Henry VII. branding was inflicted for all offences which received benefit of clergy (q.v.), but it was abolished for such in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted that those convicted of petty theft or larceny, who were entitled to benefit of clergy, should be "burnt in the most visible part of the left cheek, nearest the nose." This special ordinance was repealed in 1707. James Nayler, the mad Quaker, who in the year 1655 claimed to be the Messiah, had his tongue bored through and his forehead branded B for blasphemer.

In the Lancaster criminal court a branding-iron is still preserved in the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at one end and an M (malefactor) at the other. Close by are two iron loops for firmly securing the hands during the operation. The brander, after examination, would turn to the judge and exclaim, "A fair mark, my lord." Criminals were formerly ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if they had been previously convicted.

Cold branding or branding with cold irons became in the 18th century the mode of nominally inflicting the punishment on prisoners of higher rank. "When Charles Moritz, a young German, visited England in 1782 he was much surprised at this custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a clergyman who had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found guilty of manslaughter he was _burnt_ in the hand, if that could be called burning which was done with a cold iron" (Markham's _Ancient Punishments of Northants_, 1886). Such cases led to branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters from the army. These were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with BC (bad character). By the British Mutiny Act of 1858 it was enacted that the court-martial, in addition to any other penalty, may order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 in. below the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than 1 in. long. In 1879 this was abolished.

See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle, _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (London, 1896).

BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1790-1867), German philologist and historian of philosophy, was born at Hildesheim and educated at Kiel University. In 1812 he graduated at Copenhagen, with a thesis _Commentationes Eleaticae_ (a collection of fragments from Xenophanes, Parmenides and Melissus). For a time he studied at Gottingen, and in 1815 presented as his inaugural dissertation at Berlin his essay _Von dem Begriff der Geschichte der Philosophie_. In 1816 he refused an extraordinary professorship at Heidelberg in order to accompany B.G. Niebuhr to Italy as secretary to the Prussian embassy. Subsequently he assisted I. Bekker in the preparation of his edition of Aristotle. In 1821 he became professor of philosophy in the newly founded university of Bonn, and in 1823 published his _Aristotelius et Theophrasti Metaphysica_. With Boeckh and Niebuhr he edited the _Rheinisches Museum_, to which he contributed important articles on Socrates (1827, 1829). In 1836-1839 he was tutor to the young king Otho of Greece. His great work, the _Handbuch der Geschichte der griechisch-rom. Philos_. (1835-1866; republished in a smaller and more systematic form, _Gesch. d. Entwickelungen d. griech. Philos_., 1862-1866), is characterized by sound criticism. Brandis died on the 21st of July 1867.

See Trendelenburg, _Zur Erinnerung an C. A. B_. (Berlin, 1868).

BRANDON, a city and port of entry of Manitoba, Canada, on the Assiniboine river, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern railways, situated 132 m. W. of Winnipeg, 1184 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1891) 3778; (1907) 12,519. It is in one of the finest agricultural sections and contains a government experimental farm, grain elevators, saw and grist mills. It was first settled in 1881, and incorporated as a city in 1882.

BRANDON, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, on the Little Ouse or Brandon river, 86-1/2 m. N.N.E. from London by the Ely-Norwich line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2327. The church of St Peter is Early English with earlier portions; there is a free grammar school founded in 1646; and the town has some carrying trade by the Little Ouse in corn, coal and timber. Rabbit skins of fine texture are dressed and exported. Extensive deposits of flint are worked in the neighbourhood, and the work of the "flint-knappers" has had its counterpart here from the earliest eras of man. Close to Brandon, but in Norfolk across the river, at the village of Weeting, are the so-called Grimes' Graves, which, long supposed to show the foundations of a British village, and probably so occupied, were proved by excavation to have been actually neolithic flint workings. The pits, though almost completely filled up (probably as they became exhausted), were sunk through the overlying chalk to the depth of 20 to 60 ft., and numbered 254 in all. Passages branched out from them, and among other remains picks of deer-horn were discovered, one actually bearing in the chalk which coated it the print of the workman's hand.

BRANDY, an alcoholic, potable spirit, obtained by the distillation of grape wine. The frequently occurring statement that the word "brandy" is derived from the High German _Branntwein_ is incorrect, inasmuch as the English word (as Fairley has pointed out) is quite as old as any of its continental equivalents. It is simply an abbreviation of the Old English _brandewine_, _brand-wine_ or _brandy wine_, the word "brand" being common to all the Teutonic languages of northern Europe, meaning a thing burning or that has been burnt. John Fletcher's _Beggar's Bush_ (1622) contains the passage, "Buy brand wine"; and from the Roxburgh _Ballads_ (1650) we have "It is more fine than brandewine." The word "brandy" came into familiar use about the middle of the 17th century, but the expression "brandywine" was retained in legal documents until 1702 (Fairley). Thus in 1697 (_View Penal Laws_, 173) there occurs the sentence, "No aqua vitae or brandywine shall be imported into England." The _British Pharmacopoeia_ formerly defined French brandy, which was the only variety mentioned (officially _spiritus vini gallici_), as "Spirit distilled from French wine; it has a characteristic flavour, and a light sherry colour derived from the cask in which it has been kept." In the latest edition the Latin title _spiritus vini gallici_ is retained, but the word _French_ is dropped from the text, which now reads as follows: "A spirituous liquid distilled from wine and matured by age, and containing not less than 36-1/2% by weight or 43-1/2% by volume of ethyl hydroxide." The _United States Pharmacopoeia_ (1905), retains the Latin expression _spiritus vini gallici_ (English title _Brandy_), defined as "an alcoholic liquid obtained by the distillation of the fermented, unmodified juice of fresh grapes."

Very little of the brandy of commerce corresponds exactly to the former definition of the _British Pharmacopoeia_ as regards colouring matter, inasmuch as trade requirements necessitate the addition of a small quantity of caramel (burnt sugar) colouring to the spirit in the majority of cases. The object of this is, as a rule, not that of deceiving the consumer as to the apparent age of the brandy, but that of keeping a standard article of commerce at a standard level of colour. It is practically impossible to do this without having recourse to caramel colouring, as, practically speaking, the contents of any cask will always differ slightly, and often very appreciably, in colour intensity from the contents of another cask, even though the age and quality of the spirits are identical.

The finest brandies are produced in a district covering an area of rather less than three million acres, situated in the departments of Charente and Charente Inferieure, of which the centre is the town of Cognac. It is generally held that only brandies produced within this district have a right to the name "cognac." The Cognac district is separated into district zones of production, according to the quality of the spirit which each yields. In the centre of the district, on the left bank of the Charente, is the _Grande Champagne_, and radiating beyond it are (in order of merit of the spirit produced) the _Petite Champagne_, the _Borderies_ (or _Premiers Bois_), the _Fins Bois_, the _Bons Bois_, the _Bois Ordinaires_, and finally the _Bois communs dits a terroir_. Many hold that the brandy produced in the two latter districts is not entitled to the name of "cognac," but this is a matter of controversy, as is also the question as to whether another district called the _Grande Fine Champagne_, namely, that in the immediate neighbourhood of the little village of Juillac-le-Coq, should be added to the list. The pre-eminent quality of the Cognac brandies is largely due to the character of the soil, the climate, and the scientific and systematic cultivation of the vines. For a period--from the middle 'seventies to the 'nineties of the 19th century--the cognac industry was, owing to the inroads of the phylloxera, threatened with almost total extinction, but after a lengthy series of experiments, a system of replanting and hybridizing, based on the characteristics of the soils of the various districts, was evolved, which effectually put a stop to the further progress of the disease. In 1907 the area actually planted with the vine in the Cognac district proper was about 200,000 acres, and the production of cognac brandy, which, however, varies widely in different years, may be put down at about five million gallons per annum. The latter figure is based on the amount of wine produced in the two Charentes (about forty-five million gallons in 1905).

GENUINE COGNAC BRANDIES.

(Excepting the alcohol, results are expressed in grammes per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.)

+-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+ | | Alcohol |Total| Non- | | "Higher | | | | Age, &c. |% by vol.|Acid.|volatile|Esters.|Alcohols."|Aldehyde.|Furfural.| | | | | Acid. | | | | | +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+ | 1. _New_ 1904 | 61.7 | 45 | 5 | 82 | 125 | 8 | 2.3 | | 2. _New_, still heated by steam coil| 56.3 | 22 | 4 | 61 | 100 | 3 | 1.2 | | 3. _New_ | 67.7 | 51 | .. | 158 | 152 | 6 | 1.3 | | 4. _Five years old_, 1900 vintage | 57.7 | 92 | 37 | 125 | .. | .. | .. | | 5. _1875 vintage_, pale | 46.7 | 144 | 37 | 177 | 261 | 55 | 1.0 | | 6. _1848 vintage_, brown | 38.5 | 254 | 109 | 190 | 488 | 32 | 2.1 | +-------------------------------------+---------+-----+--------+-------+----------+---------+---------+

_Note._--In the above table the acid is expressed in terms of acetic acid, the esters are expressed as ethyl acetate, and the aldehyde as acetaldehyde. The "Higher Alcohol" figures do not actually represent these substances, but indicate the relative coloration obtained with sulphuric acid when compared with an iso-butyl standard under certain conditions.

Brandy is also manufactured in numerous other districts in France, and in general order of commercial merit may be mentioned the brandies of Armagnac, Marmande, Nantes and Anjou. The brandies commanding the lowest prices are broadly known as the _Trois-Six de Monlpellier_. In a class by themselves are the _Eaux-de-vie de Marc_, made from the wine pressings or from the solid residues of the stills. Some of these,

## particularly those made in Burgundy, have characteristic qualities, and

are considered by many to be very fine. The consumption is chiefly local. Brandy of fair quality is also made in other wine-producing countries, particularly in Spain, and of late years colonial (Australian and Cape) brandies have attracted some attention. The comsumption of brandy in the United Kingdom amounts to about two million gallons.

Brandy, in common with other potable spirits, owes its flavour and aroma to the presence of small quantities of substances termed secondary or by-products (sometimes "impurities"). These are dissolved in the ethyl alcohol and water which form over 99% of the spirit. The nature and quantity of all of these by-products have not yet been fully ascertained, but the knowledge in this direction is rapidly progressing. Ch. Ordonneau fractionally distilled 100 litres of 25-year-old cognac brandy, and obtained the following substances and quantities thereof:--

Grammes in 100 Litres.

Normal propyl alcohol 40.0 Normal butyl alcohol 218.6 Amyl alcohol 83.8 Hexyl alcohol 0.6 Heptyl alcohol 1.5 Ethyl acetate 35.0 Ethyl propionate, butyrate and caproate 3.0 Oenanthic ether (about) 4.0 Aldehyde 3.0 Acetal traces Amines traces

Most of the above substances, in fact probably all of them, excepting the oenanthic ether, are contained in other spirits, such as whisky and rum. The oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate) is one of the main characteristics which enable us chemically to differentiate between brandy and other distilled liquors. Brandy also contains a certain quantity of free acid, which increases with age, furfural, which decreases, and small quantities of other matters of which we have as yet little knowledge.

The table gives analyses, by the present author (excepting No. 3, which is by F. Lusson), of undoubtedly genuine commercial cognac brandies of various ages.