Part 25

AUTHORITIES.--(1) General: _Manual for the Study of Monumental Brasses_ (Oxford, 1848); Boutell's _Monumental Brasses of England_, engravings on wood, folio (London, 1849); _Manual of Monumental Brasses_, by H. Haines (2 vols. 8vo, 1861); Waller's _Series of Monumental Brasses in England_ (London and Oxford, Parkers, 1863); _Monumental Brasses_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, 1890); _The Brasses of England_, by H.W. Macklin (8vo, London, 1907). (2) English Counties: Cotman's _Engravings of the most Remarkable of the Sepulchral Brasses of Norfolk_ (4to, London, 1813-1816); and second edition, with plates and notes by Meyrick, Albert Way and Sir Harris Nicholas (2 vols. folio, London, 1839); _Illustrations of Monumental Brasses in Cambridge_ (4to, Camden Society, 1846); _Monumental Brasses of Northamptonshire_, by F. Hudson (folio, 1853); _The Monumental Brasses of Wiltshire_, by G. Kite (8vo, London, 1860); _Architectural and Historical Notes of the Churches of Cambridgeshire_, by A.C. Hill (8vo, 1880); _Monumental Brasses of Cornwall_, by E.H.W. Dunken (4to, London, 1882); _Monumental Brasses of Worcestershire and Herefordshire_, ed. by C.T. Davis (1884); _Kentish Brasses_, by W.D. Belcher (4to, London, 1888); _List of Monumental Brasses in the County of Norfolk_, by the Rev. E. Farrer (Norwich, 1890); _The Monumental Brasses of Lancashire and Cheshire_, by James Thornby (8vo, Hull, 1893); _Monumental Brasses in the Bedfordshire Churches_, by Grace Isherwood (8vo, London, 1906), a large collection of rubbings of special interest and value. (3) Foreign: _Monumental Brasses and Incised Slabs in Belgium_ (8vo, 1849); _Books of Facsimiles of Monumental Brasses of the Continent of Europe_, folio (1884), by the Rev. W.F. Greeny.

BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, CHARLES ETIENNE (1814-1874), Belgian ethnographer, was born at Bourbourg, near Dunkirk, on the 8th of September 1814. He entered the Roman Catholic priesthood, was professor of ecclesiastical history in the Quebec seminary in 1845, vicar-general at Boston in 1846, and from 1848 to 1863 travelled as a missionary, chiefly in Mexico and Central America. He gave great attention to Mexican antiquities, published in 1857-1859 a history of Aztec civilization, and from 1861 to 1864 edited a collection of documents in the indigenous languages. In 1863 he announced the discovery of a key to Mexican hieroglyphic writing, but its value is very questionable. In 1864 he was archaeologist to the French military expedition in Mexico, and his _Monuments anciens du Mexique_ was published by the French Government in 1866. Perhaps his greatest service was the publication in 1861 of a French translation of the _Popol Vuh_, a sacred book of the Quiche Indians, together with a Quiche grammar, and an essay on Central American mythology. In 1871 he brought out his _Bibliotheque Mexico-Guatemalienne_, and in 1869-1870 gave the principles of his decipherment of Indian picture-writing in his _Manuscrit Troano, etudes sur le systeme graphique et la langue des Mayas._ He died at Nice on the 8th of January 1874. His chief merit is his diligent collection of materials; his interpretations are generally fanciful.

BRASSEY, THOMAS (1805-1870), English railway contractor, was born at Buerton, near Chester, on the 7th of November 1805. His father, besides cultivating land of his own, held a large farm of the marquess of Westminster; his ancestors, according to family tradition, having been settled for several centuries at Bulkeley, near Malpas, Cheshire, before they went to Buerton in 1663. Thomas Brassey received an ordinary commercial education at a Chester school. At the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor, and on the completion of his term became the partner of his master, eventually assuming the sole management of the business. In the local surveys to which he devoted his attention during his early years he acquired the knowledge and practical experience which were the necessary foundation of his great reputation. His first engagement as railway contractor was entered upon in 1835, when he undertook the execution of a portion of the Grand Junction railway, on the invitation of the distinguished engineer Joseph Locke, who soon afterwards entrusted him with the completion of the London and Southampton railway, a task which involved contracts to the amount of L4,000,000 sterling and the employment of a body of 3000 men. At the same time he was engaged on portions of several other lines in the north of England and in Scotland. In conjunction with his partner, W. Mackenzie, Brassey undertook, in 1840, the construction of the railway from Paris to Rouen, of which Locke was engineer. He subsequently carried out the extension of the same line. A few years later he was engaged with his partner on five other French lines, and on his own account on the same number of lines in England, Wales and Scotland. Brassey was now in control of an industrial army of 75,000 men, and the capital involved in his various contracts amounted to some L36,000,000. But his energy and capacity were equal to still larger tasks. He undertook in 1851 other works in England and Scotland; and in the following year he engaged in the construction of railways in Holland, Prussia, Spain and Italy. One of his largest undertakings was the Grand Trunk railway of Canada, 1100 m. in length, with its fine bridge over the St Lawrence. In this work he was associated with Sir M. Peto and E.L. Betts. In the following years divisions of his industrial army were found in almost every country in Europe, in India, in Australia and in South America. Besides actual railway works, he originated and maintained a great number of subordinate assistant establishments, coal and iron works, dockyards, &c., the direction of which alone would be sufficient to strain the energies of an ordinary mind. His profits were, of course, enormous, but prosperity did not intoxicate him; and when heavy losses came, as sometimes they did, he took them bravely and quietly. Among the greatest of his pecuniary disasters were those caused by the fall of the great Barentin viaduct on the Rouen and Havre railway, and by the failure of Peto and Betts. Brassey was one of the first to aim at improving the relations between engineers and contractors, by setting himself against the corrupt practices which were common. He resolutely resisted the "scamping" of work and the bribery of inspectors, and what he called the "smothering of the engineer"; and he did much in this way to bring about a better state of things. Large-hearted and generous to a rare degree, modest and simple in his taste and manners, he was conscious of his power as a leader in his calling, and knew how to use it wisely and for noble ends. Honours came to him unsought. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on him. From Victor Emmanuel he received the cross of the Order of St Maurice and St Lazarus; and from the emperor of Austria the decoration of the Iron Crown, which it is said had not before been given to a foreigner. He died at St Leonards on the 8th of December 1870. His life and labours are commemorated in a volume by Sir Arthur Helps (1872).

He left three sons, of whom the eldest, THOMAS (b. 1836), was knighted and afterwards (1886) created BARON BRASSEY. Lord Brassey, who was educated at Rugby and Oxford, entered parliament as a liberal in 1865, and devoted himself largely to naval affairs. He was civil lord of the admiralty (1880-1883), and secretary to the admiralty (1883-1885); and both before and after his elevation to the peerage did important work on naval and statistical inquiries for the government. In 1893-1805 he was president of the Institution of Naval Architects. In 1894 he was a lord-in-waiting, and from 1895 to 1900 was governor of Victoria. In 1908 he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports. His voyages in his yacht "Sunbeam" from 1876 onwards, with his first wife (d. 1887), who published an interesting book on the subject, took him all over the world. Lord Brassey married a second time in 1890. Among other publications, his inauguration of the _Naval Annual_ (1886 onwards), and his volumes on _The British Navy_, are the most important. His eldest son Thomas, who edited the _Naval Annual_ (1890-1904), and unsuccessfully contested several parliamentary constituencies, was born in 1862.

BRASSO (Ger. _Kronstadt_; Rumanian, _Brasov_), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania, 206 m. S.E. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 34,511. It is the capital of the comitat (county) of the same name, also known as Burzenland, a fertile country inhabited by an industrious population of Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. Brasso is beautifully situated on the slopes of the Transylvanian Alps, in a narrow valley, shut in by mountains, and presenting only one opening on the north-west towards the Burzen plain. The town is entirely dominated by the Zinne of Kapellenberg, a mountain rising 1276 ft. above the town (total altitude 3153 ft.), from which a beautiful view is obtained of the lofty mountains around and of the carefully cultivated plain of the Burzenland, dotted with tastefully built and well-kept villages. On the summit of the mountain is one of the numerous monuments erected in 1896 in different parts of the country to commemorate the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the Hungarian state. It is known as Arpad's Monument, and consists of a Doric column erected on a circular pedestal, which supports the bronze figure of a warrior from the time of Arpad.

Brasso consists of the inner town, which is the commercial centre, and the suburbs of Blumenau, Altstadt and Obere Vorstadt or Bolgarszeg, inhabited respectively by Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. To the east of the inner town rises the Schlossberg, crowned by the citadel, which was erected in 1553, and constitutes the principal remaining fragment of the old fortifications with which Brasso was encircled. The most interesting building in the town is the Protestant church, popularly called the Black Church, owing to its smoke-stained walls, caused by the great fire of 1689. This church, the finest in Transylvania, is a Gothic edifice with traces of Romanesque influence, and was built in 1385-1425. In the square in front of it is the statue of Johannes Honterus (1498-1549), "the apostle of Transylvania," who was born in Brasso, and established here the first printing-press in Transylvania. In the principal square of the inner town stands the town hall, built in 1420 and restored in the 18th century, with a tower 190 ft. high. Brasso is the most important commercial and manufacturing town of Transylvania. Lying near the frontier of Rumania, with easy access through the Tomos pass, it developed from the earliest time an active trade with that country and with the whole of the Balkan states. Its chief industries are iron and copper works, wool-spinning, turkey-red dyeing, leather goods, paper, cement and petroleum refineries. The timber industry in all its branches, with a speciality for the manufacture of the wooden bottles largely used by the peasantry in Hungary and in the Balkan states, as well as the dairy industry, and ham-curing are also fully developed. A peculiarity of Brasso, which constitutes a survival of the old methods of trade with the Balkan states, is the number of money-changers who ply their trade at small movable tables in the market-place and in the open street. Brasso is the most populous town of Transylvania, and its population is composed in about equal numbers of Germans, Magyars and Rumanians. The town, especially on market days, presents an animated and picturesque aspect. Here are seen Germans, Szeklers, Magyars, Rumanians, Armenians and Gipsies, each of them wearing their distinctive national costume, and talking and bargaining in their own special idiom.

Amongst the places of interest round Brasso is the watering-place Zaizon, 15 m. to the east, with ferruginous and iodine waters; while about 17 m. to the south-west lies the pretty Rumanian village of Zernest, where in 1690 the Austrian general Heussler was defeated and taken prisoner by Imre (Emerich) Tokoly, the usurper of the Transylvanian throne.

Brasso was founded by the Teutonic Order in 1211, and soon became a flourishing town. Through the activity of Honterus it played a leading

## part in the introduction of the Reformation in Transylvania in the 16th

century. The town was almost completely destroyed by the big fire of 1689. During the revolution of 1848-1849 it was besieged by the Hungarians under General Bern from March to July 1849, and several engagements between the Austrian and the Hungarian troops took place in its neighbourhood.

BRATHWAIT, RICHARD (1588-1673), English poet, son of Thomas Brathwait, was born in 1588 at his father's manor of Burneshead, near Kendal, Westmorland. He entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1604, and remained there for some years, pursuing the study of poetry and Roman history. He removed to Cambridge to study law and afterwards to London to the Inns of Court. Thomas Brathwait died in 1610, and the son went down to live on the estate he inherited from his father. In 1617 he married Frances Lawson of Nesham, near Darlington. On the death of his elder brother, Sir Thomas Brathwait, in 1618, Richard became the head of the family, and an important personage in the county, being deputy-lieutenant and justice of the peace. In 1633 his wife died, and in 1639 he married again. His only son by this second marriage, Sir Stafford Brathwait, was killed in a sea-fight against the Algerian pirates. Richard Brathwait's most famous work is _Barnabae Itinerarium or Barnabees Journall_ [1638], by "Corymbaeus," written in English and Latin rhyme. The title-page says it is written for the "travellers' solace" and is to be chanted to the old tune of "Barnabe." The story of "drunken Barnabee's" four journeys to the north of England contains much amusing topographical information, and its gaiety is unflagging. Barnabee rarely visits a town or village without some notice of an excellent inn or a charming hostess, but he hardly deserves the epithet "drunken." At Banbury he saw the Puritan who has become proverbial,

"Hanging of his cat on Monday For killing of a Mouse on Sunday."

Brathwait's identity with "Corymbaeus" was first established by Joseph Haslewood. In his later years he removed to Catterick, where he died on the 4th of May 1673. Among his other works are: _The Golden Fleece_ (1611), with a second title-page announcing "sonnets and madrigals," and a treatise on the _Art of Poesy_, which is not preserved; _The Poets Willow; or the Passionate Shepheard_ (1614); _The Prodigals Teares_ (1614); _The Schollers Medley, or an intermixt Discourse upon Historicall and Poeticall relations_ (1614), known in later editions as a _Survey of History_ (1638, &c.); a collection of epigrams and satires entitled _A Strappado for the Divell_ (1615), with which was published incongruously _Loves Labyrinth_ (edited, 1878, by J.W. Ebsworth); _Natures Embassie; or, the wildemans measures; danced naked by twelve satyres_ (1621), thirty satires finding antique parallels for modern vices; with these are bound up _The Shepheards Tales_ (1621), a collection of pastorals, one section of which was reprinted by Sir Egerton Brydges in 1815; two treatises on manners, _The English Gentleman_ (1630) and _The English Gentlewoman_ (1631); _Anniversaries upon his Panarete_ (1634), a poem in memory of his wife; _Essaies upon the Five Senses_ (1620); _The Psalmes of David ... and other holy Prophets, paraphras'd in English_ (1638); _A Comment upon Two Tales of ... Jeffray Chaucer_ (1665; edited for the Chaucer Soc. by C. Spurgeon, 1901). Thomas Hearne, on whose testimony (MS. collections for the year 1713, vol. 47, p. 127) the authorship of the _Itinerarium_ chiefly rests, not inappropriately called him "the scribler of those times," and the list just given of his works, published under various pseudonyms, is by no means complete.

A full bibliography is given in Joseph Haslewood's edition of _Barnabee's Journall_ (ed. W.C. Hazlitt, 1876). See also J. Corser, _Collectanea_ (Chetham Soc., 1860, &c.).

BRATIANU (or BRATIANO), ION C. (1821-1891), Rumanian statesman, was born at Pitesci in Walachia on the 2nd of June 1821. He entered the Walachian army in 1838, and visited Paris in 1841 for purposes of study. Returning to Walachia, he took part, with his friend C.A. Rosetti and other prominent politicians, in the Rumanian rebellion of 1848, and acted as prefect of police in the provisional government formed in that year. The restoration of Russian and Turkish authority shortly afterwards drove him into exile. He took refuge in Paris, and endeavoured to influence French opinion in favour of the proposed union and autonomy of the Danubian principalities. In 1854, however, he was sentenced to a fine of L120 and three months' imprisonment for sedition, and later confined in a lunatic asylum; but in 1856 he returned home with his brother, Dimitrie Bratianu, afterwards one of his foremost political opponents. During the reign of Prince Cuza (1859-1866), Bratianu figured prominently as one of the Liberal leaders. He assisted in 1866 in the deposition of Cuza and the election of Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, under whom he held several ministerial appointments during the next four years. He was arrested for complicity in the revolution of 1870, but soon released. In 1876, aided by C.A. Rosetti, he formed a Liberal cabinet, which remained in power until 1888. For an account of his work in connexion with the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the Berlin congress, the establishment of the Rumanian kingdom, the revision of the constitution, and other reforms, see RUMANIA. After 1883 Bratianu acted as sole leader of the Liberals, owing to a quarrel with C.A. Rosetti, his friend and political ally for nearly forty years. His long tenure of office, without parallel in Rumanian history, rendered Bratianu extremely unpopular, and at its close his impeachment appeared inevitable. But any proceedings taken against the minister would have involved charges against the king, who was largely responsible for his policy; and the impeachment was averted by a vote of parliament in February 1890. Bratianu died on the 16th of May 1891. Besides being the leading statesman of Rumania during the critical years 1876-1888, he attained some eminence as a writer. His French political pamphlets, _Memoire sur l'empire d'Autriche dans la question d'Orient_ (1855), _Reflexions sur la situation_ (1856), _Memoire sur la situation de la Moldavie depuis le traite de Paris_ (1857), and _La Question religieuse en Roumanie_ (1866), were all published in Paris.

For his other writings and speeches see _Din Scrierile si cuvintarile lui I.C. Bratianu_, 1821-1891 (Bucharest, 1903, &c.), edited with a biographical introduction by D.A. Sturza. A brief anonymous biography, _Ion C. Bratianu_, appeared at Bucharest in 1893.

BRATLANDSDAL (i.e. Bratland valley), a gorge of southern Norway in Stavanger _amt_ (county), formed by the Bratland river, a powerful torrent issuing into Lake Suldal. A remarkable road traverses the gorge by means of cuttings and a tunnel, and the scenery is among the most magnificent in Norway. It is usually approached from Stavanger by way of Sand and Lake Suldal, and the road divides above the gorge, branches running north to Odde and south-east through Telemarken. The junction of the roads is near Breifond, 13 m. above Naes at the mouth of the river, on the west shore of Lake Roldal, which is fed by the snowfield to the west, north and east, and is drained by the Bratland river.

BRATTISHING, or BRANDISHING (from the Fr. _breteche_), in architecture, a sort of crest or ridge on a parapet, or species of embattlement. The term, however, is generally employed to describe the ranges of flowers which form the crests of so many parapets in the Tudor period.

BRATTLEBORO, a village of Windham county, Vermont, U.S.A., in a township (pop. 1910, 7541) of the same name, in the south-east part of the state, 60 m. N. of Springfield, Massachusetts, on the Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5467; (1900) 5297 (686 foreign-born); (1910) 6517. It is served by the Central Vermont and the Boston & Maine railways. Situated in a hilly, heavily wooded country, it is an attractive place, with a few houses dating from the 18th century. Among the manufactures are toys, furniture, overalls and organs, the Estey and the Carpenter organs being made there. First settled about 1753, Brattleboro took its name from one of the original patentees, William Brattle (1702-1776), a Massachusetts loyalist. It was incorporated ten years later.

See H. Burnham, _Brattleboro_ (Brattleboro, 1880), and H.M. Burt, _The Attractions of Brattleboro, Glimpses of Past and Present_ (Brattleboro, 1866).

BRAUNAU (Czech _Broumov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 139 m. E.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7622, chiefly German. The town is built on a rocky eminence on the right bank of the Steine. It has an imposing Benedictine abbey, once a castle, but converted into a religious house in 1322, when Ottakar I. gave the district to the Benedictines. Noteworthy also is the great church of Saints Wenceslaus and Adalbert, built between 1683 and 1733. This stands on the site where, in 1618, the Protestants attempted to build a church, the forcible prevention of which by Abbot Wolfgang Solander was the immediate cause of the protest of the Bohemian estates and the "defenestration" of the ministers Martinic and Slavata, which opened the Thirty Years' War. After the battle of the White Hill, near Prague (1620), the town was deprived of all its privileges, which were, however, in great part restored nine years later. It is now a manufacturing centre (cloth, woollen and cotton stuffs, &c.) and has a considerable trade.

BRAUNSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, 38 m. by rail S.W. of Konigsberg, on the Passarge, 4 m. from its mouth in the Frisches Haff. Pop. (1900) 12,497. It possesses numerous Roman Catholic institutions, of which the most important is the Lyceum Hosianum (enjoying university rank), founded in 1564 by the cardinal bishop Stanislaus Hosius. Brewing, tanning, and the manufactures of soap, yeast, carriages and bricks are the most important industries of the town, which also carries on a certain amount of trade in corn, ship timber and yarn. The river is navigable for small vessels. The castle of Braunsberg was built by the Teutonic knights in 1241, and the town was founded ten years later. Destroyed by the Prussians in 1262, it was restored in 1279. The town, which was the seat of the bishops of Ermeland from 1255 to 1298, was granted the "law of Lubeck" by its bishop in 1284, and admitted to the Hanseatic League. After numerous vicissitudes it fell into the hands of the Poles in 1520, and in 1626 it was captured by Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedes kept possession till 1635. It fell to Prussia by the first partition of Poland in 1772.

BRAVO (Ital. for "brave"), the name for hired assassins such as were formerly common in Italy. The word had at first no evil meaning, but was applied to the retainers of the great noble houses, or to the cavalier-type of swashbucklers familiar in fiction. In later Italian history, especially in that of Venice, the _bravi_ were desperate ruffians who for payment were ready to commit any crime, however foul.