Part 16

Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent quality. The most important of these, from the historical point of view, have been published in the _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_, tome iv., edited by A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's prose works are more important. The best known of these is his _Historiae Hierosolymitance_, a history of the first crusade from 1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books, the material for which was mainly drawn from the anonymous _Gesta Francorum_, but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. It was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by Ordericus Vitalis for his _Historiae ecclesiasticae_; by William, archbishop of Tyre, for his _Belli sacri historia_; and by Vincent of Beauvais for his _Speculum historiale_. The best edition is that by C. Thurot, which appears in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887), Other works probably by Baudry are _Epistola ad Fiscannenses monachos_, a description of the monastery of Fecamp; _Vita Roberti de Arbrissello; Vita S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio capitis Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto et gladio_, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and _Vita S. Samsonis Dolensis episcopi_. Other writings which on very doubtful authority have been attributed to Baudry are _Acta S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De visitatione infirmorum; Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S. Maclovii, Alectensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium_; and _Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii_. Many of these are published by J.P. Migne in the _Patrologia Latina_, tomes 160, 162 and 166 (Paris 1844).

See _Histoire litteraire de la France_, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869); H. von Sybel, _Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Leipzig, 1881); A. Thurot, "Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiere croisade; Baudri de Bourgueil" in the _Revue historique_ (Paris, 1876).

BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIME (1828-1886), French painter, was born at La Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendee). He studied under Drolling, a sound but second-rate artist, and carried off the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his picture of "Zenobia found on the banks of the Araxes." His talent from the first revealed itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and grace, but somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence in Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with the mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works he exhibited in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for the Luxembourg: "The Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin" and "The Child." His "Leda," "St John the Baptist," and a "Portrait of Beule," exhibited at the same time, took a first prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most noteworthy being "The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did he attempt an historical picture, "Charlotte Corday after the murder of Marat" (1861), and returned by preference to the former class of subjects or to painting portraits of illustrious men of his day--Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond About. The works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural decorations, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de Cassation, at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private residences--the hotel Fould and hotel Paiva--but, above all, in the decorations of the _foyer_ of the Paris opera house. These, more than thirty paintings in all, and among them compositions figurative of dancing and music, occupied the painter, for ten years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of the Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of his colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating with his brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to him in Paris (1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne (1897) is by Gerome.

See H. Delaborde, _Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry_ (1886); Ch. Ephrussi, _Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1887). (H. Fr.)

BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, was born on the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a porcelain factory, at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied at Berlin, where he attached himself to the "Right" of the Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In 1834 he began to teach in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in 1839 was transferred to Bonn. In 1838 he published his _Kritische Darstellung der Religion des Alten Testaments_ (2 vols.), which shows that at that date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon afterwards his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the Fourth Gospel, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes_ (1840), and the other on the Synoptics, _Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der Synoptiker_ (1841), as well as in his _Herr Hengstenberg, kritische Briefe uber den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des Evangeliums_, he announced his complete rejection of his earlier orthodoxy. In 1842 the government revoked his license and he retired for the rest of his life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward he took a deep interest in modern history and politics, as well as in theology, and published _Geschichte der Politik, Kultur und Aufklarung des 18ten Jahrhunderts_ (4 vols. 1843-1845), Geschichte der franzosischen Revolution (3 vols. 1847), and _Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer Imperialismus_ (1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the gospels and a history of their origin, _Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres Ursprungs_ (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the Apostles, _Apostelgeschichte_ (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline epistles, _Kritik der paulinischen Briefe_ (1850-1852). He died at Rixdorf on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his _Life of Jesus_ had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious products of the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. Bauer ridiculed Strauss's notion that a community could produce a connected narrative. His own contention, embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (_Der Urevangelist_, 1838), was that the original narrative was the Gospel of Mark; that this was composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after this the other narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however, "regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the creator of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction and Christianity the invention of a single original evangelist" (Pfleiderer). On the same principle the four principal Pauline epistles were regarded as forgeries of the 2nd century. He argued further for the preponderance of the Graeco-Roman element, as opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian writings. The writer of Mark's gospel was "an Italian, at home both in Rome and Alexandria"; that of Matthew's gospel "a Roman, nourished by the spirit of Seneca"; the Pauline epistles were written in the West in antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. Christianity is essentially "Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish garb." This line of criticism has found few supporters, mostly in the Netherlands. It certainly had its value in emphasizing the importance of studying the influence of environment in the formation of the Christian Scriptures. Bauer was a man of restless, impetuous activity and independent, if ill-balanced, judgment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in place as a free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came in the end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the Jewish question (_Die Judenfrage_, 1843).

His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the _Jewish Encyclopedia_. See generally Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, _Development of Theology_, p. 226; Carl Schwarz, _Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie_, pp. 142 ff.; and F. Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the 19th Century_ (1889), pp. 374-378.

BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, was born at Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having studied jurisprudence at the university of Vienna, he entered the government service in a legal capacity, and after holding various minor offices was transferred in 1843 to a responsible post on the Lottery Commission. He had already embarked upon politics, and severely criticized the government in a pamphlet, _Pia Desideria eines osterreichischen Schriftstellers_ (1842); and in 1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political opinions became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely to letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August 1890, and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies and farces, Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German playwrights of the century; his plots are clever, the situations witty and natural and the diction elegant. His earliest essays, the comedies _Leichtsinn aus Liebe_ (1831); _Das Liebes-Protokoll_ (1831) and _Die ewige Liebe_ (1834); _Burgerlich und Romantisch_, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he turned his attention to so-called _Salonstucke_ (drawing-room pieces), notably _Aus der Gesellschaft_ (1866); _Moderne Jugend_ (1869), and _Der Landfrieden_ (1869), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy sallies the social conditions of the capital in which he lived.

A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, _Gesammelte Schriften_, appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); _Dramatischer Nachlass_, ed. by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols., 1905). See A. Stern, _Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat_ (1890), R. von Gottschall, "E. von Bauernfeld" (in _Unsere Zeit_, 1890), and E. Horner, _Bauernfeld_ (1900).

BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name from a village in the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In consequence of an alliance with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts established themselves in Burgundy and Franche-Comte. In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of Charny, married Marie, a legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson Henri, all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588 and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre Emmanuel Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, was created a peer of France in 1817, and duke in 1818. After having served in the army of the princes he returned to France under the Empire, and had been made a count by Napoleon. (M. P.*)

BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, was the son of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), who had to leave his native country on becoming a convert to Protestantism. He was born at Basel on the 17th of January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he pursued his studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated schools in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to the degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and anatomy. In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship in that university, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and botany. He was afterwards made city physician, professor of the practice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of December 1624. He published several works relative to botany, of which the most valuable was his _Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo scripserunt opera_ (1596). Another great work which he planned was a _Theatrum Botanicum_, meant to be comprised in twelve parts folio, of which he finished three; only one, however, was published (1658). He also gave a copious catalogue of the plants growing in the environs of Basel, and edited the works of P.A. Mattioli (1500-1577) with considerable additions. He likewise wrote on anatomy, his principal work on this subject being _Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum_ (1592).

His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor of botany at Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN BAUHIN (1541-1613), after studying botany at Tubingen under Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and travelling with Conrad Gesner, began to practise medicine at Basel, where he was elected professor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he was invited to become physician to the duke of Wurttemberg at Montbeliard, where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted himself chiefly to botany. His great work, _Historia plantarum nova et absolutissima_, a compilation of all that was then known about botany, was not complete at his death, but was published at Yverdon in 1650-1651, the _Prodromus_ having appeared at the same place in 1619. He also wrote a book _De aquis medicatis_ (1605).

BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning a ridge,

## partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed between furrows or

ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip of land used as a boundary in the "open-field" system of agriculture. From the meaning of something left untouched comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse stopping short of an obstacle, of the "baulk-line" in billiards, or of the deceptive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original meaning, i.e. "beam," comes the use of the word for the cross or tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one or one and a half foot square section (see JOINERY).

BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born at Kranichfeld on the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September 1840, the son of a local medical practitioner, and received his early schooling at the gymnasium of Meiningen, to which place his father had removed. After studying natural science in various universities, he engaged in private tuition, both independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz, Brunn, Gorz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular taste with an Alpine legend, _Zlatorog_ (1877), and songs of a journeyman apprentice, _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_ (1878), both of which have run into many editions. Their success decided him to embark upon a literary career. In 1885 he returned to Meiningen, where he received the title of _Hofrat_, and was appointed ducal librarian. His death occurred on the 14th of September 1905.

Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and wrote, in imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, many excellent drinking songs, among which _Die Lindenwirtin_ has endeared him to the German student world. But his real strength lay in narrative verse, especially when he had the opportunity of describing the scenery and life of his native Thuringia. Special mention may be made of _Frau Holde_ (1881), _Spielmannslieder_ (1882), _Von der Landstrasse_ (1882), _Thuringer Lieder_ (1891), and his prose, _Sommermarchen_ (1881).

BAUME, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at Senlis on the 26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to the chemist Claude Joseph Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted a member of the Ecole de Pharmacie, where in the same year he was appointed professor of chemistry. The money he made in a business he carried on in Paris for dealing in chemical products enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote himself to applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was obliged to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing, gilding, purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the inventor of the hydrometer associated with his name (often in this connexion improperly spelt Beaume). Of the numerous books and papers he wrote the most important is his _Elemens de pharmacie theorique et pratique_ (9 editions, 1762-1818). He became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1772, and an associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the 15th of October 1804.

BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762), German philosopher, born at Berlin. He studied at Halle, and became professor of philosophy at Halle and at Frankfort on the Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple of Leibnitz and Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been the first to establish the _Theory of the Beautiful_ as an independent science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics (q.v.) from the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out a definite object for its researches. The very name (_Aesthetics_), which Baumgarten was the first to use, indicates the imperfect and partial nature of his analysis, pointing as it does to an element so variable as _feeling_ or _sensation_ as the ultimate ground of judgment in questions pertaining to beauty. It is important to notice that Baumgarten's first work preceded those of Burke, Diderot, and P. Andre, and that Kant had a great admiration for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the following: _Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus_ (1735); _Aesthetics; Metaphysica_ (1739; 7th ed. 1779); _Ethica philosophica_ (1751, 2nd ed. 1763); _Initia philosophiae practicae primae_ (1760). After his death, his pupils published a _Philosophia Generalis_ (1770) and a _Jus Naturae_ (1765), which he had left in manuscript.

See Meyer, _Baumgarten's Leben_ (1763); Abbt, _Baumgarten's Leben und Charakler_ (1765); H.G. Meyer, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (1874); J. Schmidt, _Leibnitz und Baumgarten_ (Halle, 1875); and article AESTHETICS.

His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757), was professor of theology at Halle, and applied the methods of Wolff to theology. His chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.), is sometimes called, the father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, though he did not renounce the Pietistic doctrine, began the process which Semler completed. His works include _Evangelische Glaubenslehre_ (1759); _Auszug der Kirchengeschichte_ (1743-1762); _Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum Christianarum_ (1747); _Geschichte der Religionsparteien_ (1760); _Nachricht van merkwurdigen Buchern_ (1752-1757); _Nachrichten van einer hallischen Bibliothek_ (1748-1751).

See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).

BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant theologian, was born at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the 25th of March 1812. He studied at Kiel University (1832), and became professor ordinarius of theology at Rostock (1850). A liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854 through a work, _Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus der Gegenwart_, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament and assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every kind. At a pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended evangelical freedom as regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. This, with other attempts to liberalize religion, brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities of Mecklenburg, and in 1858 he was deprived of his professorship. He then travelled throughout Germany, demanding justice, telling the story of his life (_Christliche Selbstgesprache_, 1861), and lecturing on the life of Jesus (_Die Geschichte Jesu. Fur das Verstandniss der Gegenwart_, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the _Deutsche Protestantenverein_, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several occasions (1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of the progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other works: _Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van Jerusalem bis Rom_ (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and _Doktor Martin Luther, ein Volksbuch_ (1883).

H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see also C. Schwartz, _Neueste Theologie_ (1869); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ. Theol._, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchen-Lexikon_.

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO (1788-1842), German Protestant divine, was born at Merseburg. In 1805 he entered the university of Leipzig and studied theology and philology. After acting as _Privatdocent_ at Leipzig, he was, in 1812, appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Jena, where he remained to the end of his life, rising gradually to the head of the theological faculty. He died on the 31st of May 1842. With the exception of Church history, he lectured on all branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially on New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate scholarship and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his lectures and treatises, especially those on the development of church doctrine. His published works are many, the most important being:--_Lehrbuch der christtichen Sittenlehre_ (1826); _Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie_ (1828); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_ (1832); _Compendium der Dogmengeschichte_ (1840). The last, perhaps his best work, was left unfinished, but was completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.