Part 21
allowed to remarry, but such marriages are regarded with disfavour by the stricter members of the sect. A Pariah or a Mala cannot be invested with the lingam, and, if he pretends to be a Lingayat, the Jangam does not acknowledge him. The strict rules regarding meat and drink are maintained, and Lingayats are still free from many of the ceremonies and religious performances required of other Hindus. But the tendency of to-day is to follow the lead of the Brahman; and, while no Lingayat will admit the superiority of that caste, they practically acknowledge it by imitating many Brahmanical practices. Much of the good effected by the founder has thus been counteracted, and the Lingayat is gradually becoming more and more like his orthodox Hindu brother. In proof of this tendency it may be noted that, at the time of the census of 1891, there were numerous representations from Lingayats claiming the right to be described as Virasaiva Brahmans. Further, on the occasion of the census of 1901, a complete scheme was supplied to the census authorities professing to show all Lingayat sub-divisions in four groups, viz., Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. It is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, that the Lingayats interviewed the Maharaja, and begged that their registration as Virasaiva Brahmans might be directed. "The crisis was removed by His Highness the Maharaja's Government passing orders to the effect that the Lingayats should not be classed as Sadras any more than any other non-Brahmans, but should be separately designated by their own name, and that, while they were at liberty to call themselves Virasaiva Brahmans, they should specify the name of the particular and well-known sub-division to which each censused unit belonged. It is noteworthy that, as soon as the clamour of the Lingayats was set at rest, some of their leaders seem to have become ashamed of their own previous vehemence, while the movement seemed to have lost the spring imparted by sincerity. Their feelings were brought to the test when the question of permitting the wonted periodical procession of their religious flagstaff, the nandi-dhvaja, came on for consideration by the Police department. The Lingayats' application for a license was opposed by the other castes on the ground that, since they had become Brahmans, and had ceased to belong to the right-hand faction, they had no right to parade the nandi-dhvaja. The Lingayats then showed themselves glad to regain their status quo ante."
In connection with the name Virasaiva, it may be noted en passant that the first session of the Shreemat Veerashaiva Mahasabha [121] was held at Dharwar in the Bombay Presidency in 1904. Thereat various suggestions were made concerning religious instruction, education, marriage, the settlement of disputes by arbitration, and other matters affecting the material welfare of the Lingayat community as a whole.
It is worthy of note that, according to some writers, Basava is supposed to have come within the influence of the Syrian Christians. The idea was started by Mr. C. P. Brown, whose essay on the Jangams [122] is the classic on this subject. Mr. A. C. Burnell quotes the remarkable fact from Cosmos that, in the sixth century, there was a Persian Bishop at Kalliana near Udupi. And it is presumed by Surgeon-Major W. R. Cornish, the writer of the Madras Census Report, 1871, that Kalliana is identical with Kalyan, where Basava was prime minister six centuries later. This is clearly wrong, for Udupi is on the west coast 30 miles north of Mangalore, whereas Kalyan, the Chalukyan capital, is in the heart of the Deccan, 350 miles away over the western ghauts. There was another Calyaun or Kaliana close to Udupi on the coast, as shown by some of the older maps. But it is well known that Western India was at this time tenanted by large settlements of Persians or Manichæans, and recent discoveries tend to show that these people were Christians. It seems, therefore, to be quite possible that the discussions, which preceded Basava's revolt, were tinged with some Christian colouring, derived from the followers of the Syrian school. Mr. Burnell even thinks that all the modern philosophical schools of India owe much to the same source.
The Lingayat faith appears to have spread very rapidly after Basava's death, which may be placed in the year 1168, and Rice says that, according to tradition, within sixty years of the founder's death it was embraced from Ulavi near Goa to Sholapur, and from Balehalli to Sivaganga. The disappearance of the Chalukyan dynasty is in itself evidence of the rising power of the Lingayats. But no real estimate can be made of its progress at first. More than a hundred years later, the Muhammadan invaders took possession of the Deccan, and other religions were driven southwards. The Empire of Vijayanagar, which is said to have covered the whole country from the Kistna to Cape Comorin, rose out of the ruins of the Hindu kingdoms, and as Mr. Sewell says, [123] the fighting Kings of Vijayanagar became the saviours of the south for two and a half centuries. The early members of this dynasty were Saivaites in faith, but there is no record of the workings of the reformed religion, which had spread southwards before Vijayanagar became a power.
The followers of this religion are easily distinguished from other Hindus by the fact that the lingam is worn on a conspicuous part of the body. The bulk of the cultivators enclose it in a red silk scarf tied round their necks, with a knot in front. This scarf is tied on the left arm above the elbow when the wearer is at work, and is sometimes placed round the head when bathing. Some of the traders, who are the richer class, carry it in a small silver box hung round the neck with a thread called sivadhara, or in a gold box studded with precious stones. The women do not wear it outside the dress, and generally keep it on a neck-string. No one is allowed to put it down even for a moment. Recently a Lingayat merchant in Madras removed his silver lingam casket from his neck, wrapped it up in a cloth, put it under his head, and went to sleep on a street pial (platform). While he was slumbering, the casket was stolen by a cart driver. The lingam itself, which is regarded as the home of the deity, is generally made of grey soapstone brought from Parvatgiri (Srisaila) in the Kurnool district. It is brought by a class of people called Kambi Jangams, because, besides the linga stone, they bring on a kavadi or shoulder-bamboo the holy water of the Patalganga, a pool on Parvatgiri, whose water Lingayats hold as sacred as Brahmans the water of the Ganges.
The following description of the lingam is taken from the Bombay Gazetteer for Bijapur. "It consists of two discs, the lower one circular about one-eighth of an inch thick, the upper slightly elongated. Each disc is about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and is separated by a deep groove about an eighth of an inch broad. From the centre of the upper disc, which is slightly rounded, rises a pea-like knob about a quarter of an inch long and three-quarters of an inch round, giving the stone lingam a total height of nearly three-quarters of an inch. This knob is called the ban or arrow. The upper disc is called jalhari, that is the water carrier, because this part of a full-sized lingam is grooved to carry off the water which is poured over the central knob. It is also called pita, that is the seat, and pithak the little seat. Over the lingam, to keep it from harm, is plastered a black mixture of clay, cowdung ashes, and marking-nut juice. This coating, which is called kauthi or the cover, entirely hides the shape of the enclosed lingam. It forms a smooth black slightly truncated cone, not unlike a dark betel nut, about three-quarters of an inch high, and narrowing from three-quarters of an inch at the base to half an inch across the top."
The Jangam cannot as a rule be distinguished from other Lingayats. All male members of the community have a clean-shaved head, without the top-knot common to the Brahmans. All, male as well as female, daub their foreheads with vibhuti or sacred ashes every morning. There is thus no distinctive mark for the Jangam. But certain ascetics of the priestly class sometimes put on a red robe peculiar to them, and others cover themselves with vibhuti and many quaint ornaments. [A Jangam whom I interviewed at a village in Mysore, was named Virabhadra Kayaka, and was also known as Kasi Lingada Vira. He was going about the village, shouting, dancing, and repeating the Virabhadra khadga or praise of Virabhadra, Siva's son. On his bead he had a lingam stuck in his head-cloth, with a five-headed snake forming a canopy over it, and the sacred bull Basava in front. Tied to the forehead, and passing round the head, was a string holding thirty-two lingams. At the back of the head was a mane of white false hair. His face was painted bright red. Round the neck he had four garlands of rudraksha beads, and suspended from the neck, and resting on the chest, was a silver casket containing a lingam. Round the waist was a waist-band made of brass squares ornamented with a variety of figures, among which were the heads of Daksha Brahma and Virabhadra. Suspended from the neck was a breast-plate, with a representation of Virabhadra and the figures of Daksha Brahma and his wife engraved in copper. From the waist a piece of tiger skin was suspended, to which were attached two heads of Daksha Brahma with a lion's head between. Hanging lower down was a figure of Basava. Tied to the ankles were hollow brass cylinders with loose bits of brass inside. Strings of round brass bells were tied to the knees. In his right hand he carried a long sword, and tied to the left forearm was a gauntlet-handled scimitar. To the handle were attached pieces of brass, which made a noise when the arm was shaken. Finally, round the forearm were tied pieces of bear-skin.]
No account of the Lingayat community as it exists at the present day would be complete without some reference to the grounds on which the modern representatives of Lingayatism claim for their religion an origin as ancient as that of Brahministic Hinduism, and a social structure similar to that which is described in the Code of Manu.
Mr. Karibasava Shastri, Professor of Sanskrit and Canarese in the State College of Mysore, writes that the Shaiv sect of Hindus has always been divided into two groups, the one comprising the wearers of the linga, and the other those who do not wear it. The former he designates Virshaiv, and declares that the Virshaivs consist of Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Sudra. Quoting from the 17th chapter of the Parameshvar Agma, he declares that the Virshaiv Brahmans are also known as Shudha Virshaivs, Virshaiv Kings are Marga Virshaiv, Virshaiv Vaishya are Mishra Virshaiva, and the Sudras of the community are Anter Virshaiv. In his opinion the duties and penances imposed on the first of these classes are--
(1) The ashtavarna. (2) Penances and bodily emaciation. (3) The worship of Siva without sacrifice. (4) The recital of the Vedas.
The Professor asserts that the Hindu ashrams of Brahmacharya, Grahasta and Sanyasi are binding on Virshaivs, and quotes from various Sanskrit works texts in support of this view. He also furnishes a mythical account of the origin of the Lingayats at the time of the creation of the world.
A committee of gentlemen appointed in the Belgaum district to consider the question of the origin of the Lingayats base their opinion on a Sanskrit work, the Paramarahasya, and give the following account:--"When the God Shiva wished to people the earth, he created from his mouth five acharyas, namely, Marula Radhyacharya, Ekoranadhyacharya, Revanaradhyacharya, Panditaradhyacharya and Vishvaradhyacharya. These five acharyas propagated the Lingayat portion of mankind. Each of them founded a gotra, namely, Bhringi, Vira, Vrisha, Skanda and Handi, and their five seats are Shrishaila, Kollipaki, Ujjaini, Kashi and Balihalli."
A third account prepared specially in connection with the census of 1901 begins by controverting the common opinion that Basava founded the Lingayat religion, that it was in origin anti-Brahmanical, and that it abolished caste distinctions. The account continues as follows. "A little enquiry will clearly show that it was not Basava who founded the religion, but that he only revived the previously existing and ancient religion; that it is not anti-Brahmanical, but that it protests against the efficacy of animal sacrifices, and that the religion itself is founded on the authority of the Vedas, treating of animal sacrifices just as the Shri Vaishnav and Madhva religions have rejected certain portions and adopted certain others of the Vedas. Consequently it is incorrect to say that the Virshaivs reject the authority of the Vedas." The writer maintains that caste distinctions are not foreign to the nature of Lingayatism, and asserts that they have always existed. According to him, the orthodox theory is that, when Brahma was ordered to create the world, he requested Siva to teach him how to, whereupon Siva created aprakruts. Brahma created the world from the five elements of nature, and produced the prakruts. The Lingayats are the aprakruts, and the Brahmanistic Hindus prakruts. Here follow many quotations from Sanskrit Agmas in support of the facts alleged. It is unnecessary to weary the reader with the texts and their translations. The object in referring to these latter day accounts of the origin of the Lingayats is to show the modern tendency of tradition to bring Lingayatism into line with Brahmanistic Hinduism. The works referred to by the learned authors appear to be Sanskrit writings of not more than 500 years ago, and cannot be taken as proof that the Lingayat religion is of greater antiquity than the 12th century, or that it has always been observant of caste distinctions. The persistence with which these points are advanced at the present day is, however, worthy of careful notice. If Lingayatism was an island thrown up within the "boundless sea of Hinduism," it would appear that the waters of the ocean are doing their utmost to undermine its solid foundations. The Lingayats in Bombay, Madras and Mysore number about two millions. Mysore and the Southern Mahratta country are the principal homes of the creed, and the Bellary district, which is wedged in between the above territories, must be classed with them. Mr. Rice tells us that it was the State religion of the Wodeyars of Mysore from 1399 to 1610, and of the Nayaks of Keladi, Ikkeri or Bednur from 1550 to 1763. At the present day the ruling family in Mysore employ none but Lingayats as cooks and watermen. The Lingayats of Madras numbered 138,518 at the census of 1901. These figures, however, are of doubtful accuracy, as many were entered under caste names, and the probable strength of the community must be largely in excess of the figures. They were chiefly found in the Bellary district.
The following are the main sub-divisions of the community in the Madras Presidency :--
1. Jangam. The priestly class.
2. Banajiga or Banjig, divided into Banajigas proper and Jain Banajigas.
These are essentially traders, but many are now cultivators. The equivalent in the Telugu country is Linga Balija. Jangams occasionally take Banajiga girls in marriage. The girl has to undergo certain ceremonies before her marriage, and after that she should not be treated as a daughter or sister of the family, but should be considered as a Jangam's wife, and respect paid to her. Jangam girls are not given to Banajigas as wives. Jain Banajigas are considered as inferior to Banajigas proper, and girls of the former are not married into families of the latter.
3. Sadaru, divided into Kumbala Kudi Sadaru and Chadaru Sadaru. The great majority are cultivators.
4. Laligonda, divided into Hera (elder) and Chikka (younger) Laligonda.
5. Kapu, Reddi, and Vakkaliga, cultivators.
The Aradhya Brahman is termed a Lingayat. This caste is not included in the present note. The members of it wear the sacred thread, as well as the lingam. They are strict Saivite Brahmans, and have nothing to do with the Lingayats proper.
The three religious divisions of the community are styled:--
1. Nirabara Vira Saiva. Sanyasis or ascetics, wearing only the kaupinam or loin-cloth
2. Vishesha Vira Saiva. The priestly class, generally called Jangams.
3. Samanya Vira Saiva. This includes all Lingayats, who are not Sanyasis or Jangams. The whole Lingayat community is dealt with by Mr. C. P. Brown under the name Jangam, and his essay speaks of Vishesha and Samanya Jangams. This is incorrect, for no Samanya Vira Saiva can be a Jangam, and all Jangams are Vishesha Vira Saivas.
The Jangams are mostly literate, and the members of the Banjig or trader class are frequently literate. The other classes of men, and the women of all classes are practically illiterate. Canarese is the common language of Lingayats, and it is usually preserved as a house language where Canarese is not the language of the locality. In Bellary the teachers in several of the board schools (primary standard) are Jangams. Very few Lingayats have as yet competed for University honours, and the number of Lingayat graduates is small.
The common termination for males is Appa, and for females Amma or Akka, or Avva. In the case of Jangams the male termination is Ayya. The names commonly in use are as follows:--
Basappa or Basamma, after Basava, the founder of the religion.
Chennappa or Chennava, after Chennabasava, nephew of Basava.
Sugurappa or Suguravva, after Sugur, where there is a temple of Virabhadra.
Revanna or Revamma, after Revana Sideswara, the founder of the Balehalli mutt.
Mallappa or Mallava, a localised name of Siva.
Nagappa or Naganna, after a snake.
Bussappa or Bussavva, after the hiss of a snake.
Basappa is the most common name of all, and it is said that in Kottur, a town of 7,000 inhabitants, not far from Ujjini, one half of the male Lingayats are styled Kottur Basappa.
Tinduga or Tindodi is a nickname given to a daughter's son born and bred up in his maternal grandfather's house. The name signifies that the boy will some day quit the house and join his father's family, tindu meaning eating, and wodi, running away. If the child happens to be a female she is called Tindavva or Tindodi. Kuldappa, or Kuldavva, is a nickname for one who fails to see a thing at once when he looks for it. Kulda is a corruption of kuruda, which means a blind man. Superstition has something to do with the naming of children. Children whose predecessors died successively in their infancy are named as Sudugappa or Sudugadavva after sudugadu, burial-ground, Gundappa or Gundavva after gundu, a rock, Tippiah or Tippavva after tippa, a rubbish heap, Tirakappa after tirakambonu, begging. These names signify humility, and are given in the belief that God will pity the parents and give the children a long lease of life. Two names are not given to a child, but pet names are used instead.
The recognised head-quarters of the Lingayats in the Bellary district is Ujjini, a village in the south of the Kudligi taluk on the borders of Mysore. There are five head-quarters of the community in different parts of India. In each there is what is called a Simhasanadhipati. In the first period of creation, Iswara or Siva is supposed to have appeared in five different forms, emanating from his five faces, and the five Lingayat centres are representative of these five forms. The places are Ujjini, Srisaila, Kollepaka, Balehalli, and Benares.
It is said that the Mutt at Kollepaka no longer exists, and has been replaced by one at Bukkasagar in the Hospet taluk of Bellary district. The shape and materials of their dwellings are not in any way different from those of other Hindus. In the Bellary district, houses of the better classes are built of stone; poorer persons can only afford mud houses. All adopt the flat roof peculiar to the Deccan.
It is recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that "the orthodox theory among the Lingayats is that their religion was founded by a number of Acharyas, the most famous of whom were Renuka, Daraka, Gajakarna, Ghantakarna and Viswakarna, who are the Gotrakartas of the Lingayat Dwijas, having received their mandate direct from Siva to establish his true religion on earth, or rather to restore it to its purity. As belonging to the Apprakrita Srishti, the Virasaivas are enjoined not to follow that portion of the Vedas which treats of Yagnas or animal sacrifices. Their contention is that karma, or the performance of ceremonies, is of two kinds, namely, one relating to the attainment of worldly desires, and the other relating to the attainment of wisdom or gnana. The idea of salvation in Brahmanical religions generally is the attainment of desires, going to Swarga or Heaven, where one would enjoy eternal bliss. But salvation, as understood by the Virasaiva religion, is something different, and goes one step further, meaning absorption into and attainment of oneness with the deity. Consequently, they are prohibited from performing all those ceremonies which relate to the attainment of Swarga, but are bound to perform those which relate to gnana or wisdom, and to salvation as understood by them. The five great Gotrakartas established five great religious centres in different parts of India, viz., Ekorama at Ketara in the Himalayas, Viswacharya at Benares, Marutacharya at Ujjain, Pandithacharya at Srisaila in Cuddapah district, and Renukacharya at Balehalli or Balehonnur in Koppa taluk (of Mysore), at all of which places the mutts still exist. The heads of these mutts have geographically divided the Lingayats into five great divisions, and each head exercises spiritual control within his own legitimate sphere, though all of them have a general jurisdiction over all the Lingayats generally. Each of these mutts, called simhasanas (thrones), has sub-mutts in important popular centres under the management of Pattadaswamis. Each sub-mutt has a number of branch mutts, called Gurusthala mutts, under it, and these latter are established wherever a community of Lingayats exists. The rights and duties of the Swamis of these mutts are to preside on all ceremonial occasions, to receive their dues, to impart religious instructions, to settle religious disputes, and to exercise a general control over all matters affecting the interests of the community at large. But one particular feature of this sect is the existence of another order of priests, called Viraktas, also known as Nirabharis or Jangamas, who hold the highest position in the ecclesiastical order, and therefore command the highest respect from laymen as well as from the above mentioned clergy. Each Virakta mutt is directly subject to the Murgi mutt at Chitaldrug, which has absolute jurisdiction over all the Viraktas. Most Lingayat towns have a Virakta mutt built outside the town, where the Swami or the Jangama leads a solitary, simple and spiritual life. Unlike the other priests, the Virakta is prohibited from presiding on ceremonial occasions, and from receiving unnecessary alms unless for the purpose of immediately distributing the same to others. He should devote his whole life partly to spiritual meditation, and partly to the spreading of spiritual knowledge among his disciples, so that he would be the fountain head, to whom all laymen and all clergy must turn for spiritual wisdom. His position, in short, should be that of a pure Sanyasi of the most exalted order. But here, as in the case of most other Indian ecclesiastical orders, the modern representative of the ancient prototype is far different from the ideal."