CHAPTER X.

THE HISTORY OF EGYPT.

Palaeolithic Period.

The only remains of this Period in the British Museum are =flint axes=, borers, scrapers, etc., typical examples of which are exhibited in Table-case M in the Third Egyptian Room.

Neolithic Period.

Towards the end of this Period Egypt was divided into =two kingdoms=, of the South and of the North; of the kings of the latter a few names are known from the Palermo Stele, _e.g._, =Seka=, =Khaȧu=, =Tȧu=, =Thesh Neheb=, =Uatch-nār= or =Uatch-ȧnt=, =Mekha=, etc. No date can be assigned to the rule of these kings, but they probably all reigned before B.C. 4500. Whilst Egypt was divided into two kingdoms the country was invaded, probably more than once, by a people who made their way thither from the East, or South-East, and settled as conquerors in the Nile Valley and Delta. They brought with them a civilization superior to the African, and appear to have introduced wheat, barley, the sheep, the art of writing, a superior kind of brickmaking, etc. After a time, length unknown, there arose a king who succeeded in uniting the Kingdoms of the North and South under his sway; that king was =Menȧ= or =Menes=.

DYNASTIC PERIOD—ANCIENT EMPIRE.

First Dynasty. From the city of This.

_About_ B.C. 4400.

=Menȧ=, the Menes of the Greeks, was the first dynastic king of Egypt, and has been identified by some with king =Āḥa= 𓂚, whose tomb was discovered in 1897 at Abydos. Nothing is known of his reign from the monuments, but a tradition preserved by Greek writers declared that he altered the course of the Nile, and so redeemed from the river a large tract upon which he built the first city of Memphis. Among the objects in the British Museum bearing the name of =Āḥa= may be mentioned some =clay sealings= for small wine-jars, a portion of an =ivory box=, and parts of two =ebony tablets=. (Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room.)

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓂚𓐽𓊂 ĀḤA.

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓆢𓍋𓐽𓊂 NĀR-MER.

=Tetȧ=, or =Ȧtet=, was the successor of Menȧ, according to the King Lists. In recent years this king has been identified by some with a king whose name is provisionally read =Nār-mer=; others, however, take the view that Nār-mer is one of the names of Betchau, a king of the IInd dynasty.

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓏄𓐽𓊂 KHENT.

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓆓𓐽𓊂 TCHA.

The next two kings were =Ȧteth= and =Ȧta=, but of their reigns nothing is known; according to some authorities we are to identify King =Khent= with the former, and King =Tcha= with the latter. There are several small objects in the British Museum inscribed with the name of =Tcha= (Table-case L), and several jar-sealings (Wall-case on Landing).

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓂧𓈖𓐽𓊂 ṬEN.

The reign of the next king =Semti= 𓈉𓐰𓈉, or =Ṭen=, formerly known as =Ḥesepti= 𓈈𓐰𓈈, was important. A legend preserved in the Book of the Dead states that the short form of the LXIVth Chapter of that work was “found” during his reign; and on the tablet exhibited in Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room (No. 124), the king is represented dancing before a god, who wears the White Crown and is seated within a shrine placed on the top of a flight of steps. As in later texts Osiris is called “the god on the steps,” and the White Crown is one of his most characteristic emblems, we are probably justified in identifying the figure in the shrine with that of Osiris. It is probable that the =worship of Osiris= assumed an importance in the reign of Semti hitherto unknown, and that it was at this period that the cult of this god began to displace the =worship of ancestors=, which, up to that time, appears to have been general. It is clear that tradition assigned to his reign a period of literary activity. The name of Semti also occurs in connexion with a recipe in a =book of medicine= for driving the disease _ukhedu_ out of the body. (For objects bearing his name see Table-case L, and for wine-jar sealings see Wall-cases on Landing.)

[Illustration: King Semti dancing before the god who wears the White Crown.]

The sixth king of this dynasty was =Āṭȧb=, or =Ātchȧb=, otherwise known as Merpeba, or =Merbapen=. (For a number of objects bearing his names see Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)

The next king, according to the King Lists, was called =Semerkha=, or Ḥu, or Nekht, or =Semsu=, the Semempses of Manetho. (For objects bearing his name see Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)

𓅃𓉘𓐼𓈎𓂝𓐽𓊂 QĀ.

This dynasty was brought to a close by the reign of a king called =Qebḥ= in the later Lists; the correct form of his name is, however, =Sen=, and his Horus name is =Qā=. (For objects bearing his name see Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)

Second Dynasty. From the city of This.

_About_ B.C. 4133.

The first king of the IInd dynasty was =Khā-Sekhemui=, 𓈍𓌂𓌂 other names of whom were =Betchau=, Neter-baiu, and =Besh=. From the reliefs on the statues of this king which were recovered from his tomb at Abydos, we may assume that Besh fought many battles, and conquered his enemies. From a design on one of his vases we learn that he was probably the first to enclose his personal name within the _Shennu_ sign 𓍶, which was afterwards elongated into the _cartouche_ 𓍷 when royal names became longer. In this design we see the vulture-goddess Nekhebit uniting the South and the North, and holding in one claw the sign 𓍶, with the name Besh written within it thus 𓃀𓐰𓈚. Betchau, or Besh, has been identified by some with Nār-mer. There are no objects bearing the name of Nār-mer in the British Museum, but a good cast of a green slate shield of Betchau is exhibited in Wall-case 10 on the Landing of the North-West Staircase. The designs on this remarkable object are reproduced in the _Guide to the First and Second Egyptian Rooms_, p. 40 ff. The objects found in the tomb of Besh prove that the Egyptians were, even at this early period, skilled in stone-cutting, statue-making, and working in metals, and that their religious and social institutions must have been established for many generations. (See the =copper vases= and wine-jar sealings on the Landing, and the interesting group of objects, fragments of vases, etc., in Table-case L.)

Besh was followed by =Ḥetep-Sekhemui= 𓊵𓌂𓌂, of whom we have a fragment of a stone vase (Table-case L, No. 162); and by =Rā-neb= and =En-neter= (see the fragment of a bowl in Table-case L, No. 163). During the reign of Rā-neb, who was also called =Ka-kau=, the worship of the =Apis Bull= of Memphis, the =Mnevis Bull= of Heliopolis, and the =Ram of Mendes= was either reconstituted, or additional shrines were founded or old ones repaired. (For typical figures of these gods see Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.) After =Uatchnes=, of whom nothing is known, came a king who as the representative of Horus was called =Sekhem-ȧb=, and as the representative of Set, =Perȧbsen=. In Table-case L are a jar-sealing and a fragment of a stone vase, and in the Wall-case on the Landing a fine, hard grey granite stele, inscribed with his =Set name=.

[Illustration: Slab from the tomb of Sherȧ, a Priest of the Ka of Senṭ, a king of the IInd dynasty, B.C. 4000.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 1.]]

=Senṭ= or =Senṭȧ= is mentioned in connexion with a certain medical work which was either written or edited in the reign of Semti, the fifth king of the Ist dynasty. Nothing is known of Senṭ’s reign, but we find from the tomb of =Sherȧ=, a priest, that services were performed on behalf of his Ka or “Double” and that of his predecessor Perȧbsen. Sherȧ the priest probably lived at the end of the IInd, or at the beginning of the IIIrd, dynasty. A fine slab from his tomb is exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. 1.

Of the remaining kings of the IInd dynasty, =Neferkarā=, =Neferkaseker=, =Ḥetchefa=, and =Bebi=, or =Tchatchai=, their names only have survived.

Third Dynasty. From Memphis.

_About_ B.C. 3966.

The greatest of the kings of this dynasty was =Tcheser=, or =Tcheser-sa=, who is renowned as the builder of the famous =Step Pyramid= at Ṣaḳḳârah. This pyramid is about 200 feet high, and has six “steps,” 38, 36, 34½, 33, 31, and 29½ feet high respectively; the lengths of its sides at the base are: north and south, 352 feet, east and west 396 feet. A tomb of Tcheser, who has been identified with this king, was discovered at Bêt Khallâf in 1901. Details of his reign are wanting, but, according to a legend preserved on a rock stele on the Island of Sâḥal in the First Cataract, a =Seven Years’ Famine= came upon Egypt in his time, and want and misery were universal. Greek tradition ascribed to Tcheser great medical knowledge, and he is said to have been a patron of literature. Among the objects of this king in the British Museum may be mentioned the fragment of a slate vase (Table-case L, No. 169), and the very interesting small =glazed tiles= (Nos. 208, 209, in the same case; and see Table-case K in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 863-869), which were found inlaid in the wall of the doorway in the pyramid of King Tcheser.

The other kings of this dynasty, =Ḥen-Nekhtor=, =Sa-Nekht=, =Tcheser-Tetȧ=, =Setches=, and =Nefer-ka-Rā Ḥuni= were unimportant; the last named is mentioned in the famous Book of Moral Precepts known as the =Prisse Papyrus=, where he is said to have been the predecessor of the great king Seneferu. With the ending of the IIIrd dynasty the period of Egyptian History called the =Archaïc Period= closes. During these dynasties civilization had advanced greatly in Egypt. The habitations of the living were now built of brick, with wooden roofs supported on pillars; and the dead were provided with stone-built tombs, called =maṣṭabas=, in which they were laid at full length, instead of in contracted positions. The =art= of =writing= had been introduced, and the beginning of the hieroglyphic system invented. Sculptors and metal workers had attained considerable skill, and potters had learned how to apply glaze. The progress made during the Archaïc Period can be successfully studied by the visitor from the valuable collection of objects exhibited in Table-case L in the Second Egyptian Room, and in the Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase. Special attention should be given to the =green slate shields=, sculptured in relief with hunting scenes, and to the fine display of =vases= and =bowls=, in diorite, granite, porphyry, jasper, breccia, limestone, alabaster, etc., in Wall-cases 137-142, 194-204, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. To the same period probably belong:—1. The portion of a sculptured stele, with the Horus name of a king, which was found at Wâdî Maghârah in the Peninsula of Sinai (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =2=). 2. The very interesting red granite statue, of a most archaïc character, of =Betchmes=, a royal kinsman and axeman who was attached to the body-guard of the king (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =3=). 3. The text on a limestone slab in which the hieroglyphics are not divided by lines (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =4=). 4. Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =5=).

[Illustration: Relief from the tomb of Suten-ȧbu.

IIIrd or IVth dynasty, B.C. 3700.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 5.]]

Fourth Dynasty. From Memphis.

_About_ B.C. 3733.

With the accession of =Seneferu= one of the most important periods in the history of Egypt opened, and it was marked by the =conquest of the Sûdân= and the =Sinaitic Peninsula=, by the building of the =Pyramids=, and by the production of bas-reliefs, sculptures, wall-paintings, etc., which for fidelity to nature and delicacy of execution were never surpassed. Several of the earlier kings of Egypt had trade relations with the natives of Sinai who worked the famous copper and turquoise mines of Wâdî Maghârah; but Seneferu invaded the country and conquered it, and cut reliefs on the rocks in which he is represented clubbing the rebellious natives. He was the first to group four of the royal titles within a cartouche thus: 𓍹𓐼𓆥𓅒𓎟𓌷𓐰𓏏𓅉𓋴𓄤𓂋𓅱𓐽𓍺. He also =raided the Sûdân=, and captured, as we learn from the Palermo Stele, 7,000 men, _i.e._, slaves, and 200,000 animals, _i.e._, oxen, cows, goats, etc. The men were, no doubt, brought to Egypt and made to labour there on the king’s works. During the reign of Seneferu, Egypt was invaded by certain Eastern tribes by way of the desert; and the country seems to have suffered from a famine. Seneferu was probably buried in the =Pyramid= of =Mêdûm=, which is called the “False Pyramid,” and is of an unusual shape; it is about 115 feet high, and consists of three stages, which are 70, 20, and 25 feet high respectively. He also built a pyramid at Dahshûr. His queen was =Mert-tefs= 𓌻𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓏏𓐰𓆑𓋴, who survived him and was living during the reigns of Khufu and Khāfrā; a limestone false door from her tomb is exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =7=. The governor of Seneferu’s pyramid at Mêdûm was Ka-nefer (for his sepulchral stele see the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =8=), to whose memory a pious son set up the memorial tablet No. =9=.

[Illustration: King Khufu (Cheops).

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 13.]]

Seneferu was succeeded by =Khufu=, the =Cheops= of the Greeks, the son of =Shaȧru= 𓍹𓐼𓈚𓄿𓁹𓐰𓂋𓅱𓐽𓍺, the greatest king of the dynasty; he is said to have reigned sixty-three years. He may have been a great warrior, like Seneferu; and a relief on the rocks at Wâdî Maghârah in the Sinaitic Peninsula represents him in the act of clubbing a typical foe in the presence of the ibis-headed god Thoth. He was, however, a far greater builder, and he has been known to fame for some thousands of years as the builder of the =Great Pyramid= (see =Plate XX=). This wonderful building, which the Egyptians called “Khut,” 𓅜𓐍𓐰𓏏𓉴, stands on the edge of a ledge of rock forming the “skirt” (hence the name _Gîzah_) of the desert, on the western bank of the Nile, about 5 miles from the river, near the village of Al-Gîzah. It covers an area of 12½ acres. It is 451 feet high, and the flat space at the top is about 30 feet square. The length of each side at the base is 755 feet; but before the outer layers of stone were removed and used in Cairo for building material each side was 20 feet longer, and the pyramid itself was about 30 feet higher. It was originally covered with inscribed slabs of smooth limestone or polished granite, and it is calculated that it at present contains 85,000,000 cubic feet of masonry. The illustration on page 197 illustrates the general arrangement of the chambers and corridors inside the pyramid, and the corridor and mummy chamber beneath it. The stone used in building was quarried at Ṭura, on the eastern bank of the Nile, about 8 or 9 miles from the pyramid site. It was rolled down to the river on a made road, and ferried across in barges, and then rolled up the embanked road and causeway to the rock. According to Diodorus (i, 63), the building occupied at least twenty years, and some 300,000 men were employed in the work. Herodotus says (ii, 64) that ten years were consumed in the quarrying of the stone, and ten more in building, and that the men worked in gangs of ten thousand, each gang working three months at a time. A group of three =casing stones= from the Great Pyramid are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =10-12=, and also a plaster cast of a =statue= of =Khufu= (No. =13=). Attached to the Great Pyramid was a funerary temple in which commemorative services were performed; and either towards the end of the king’s reign, or soon after his death, one of the chief priests in it was =Ka-ṭep=, who held the office of “Prefect of the _sa_” 𓌂𓅓𓎂, _i.e._, of the “fluid of life.” Ka-ṭep was a “royal kinsman,” and his wife =Ḥetep-ḥeres= was a “royal kinswoman.” For the statues of Ka-ṭep and his wife, see page 177, and for “false doors” from his maṣṭaba tomb, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =14-17=, and for his =censers=, see Wall-case 200 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 52, 53. Another official who flourished about this period was =Sheshȧ=, from whose tomb came the limestone stele in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =18=.

[Illustration: PLATE XX.

The Great Pyramid and Sphinx.]

[Illustration: Section of the Great Pyramid of Gîzah, built by Khufu (Cheops), showing the internal passages and chambers, and the underground corridor and sarcophagus chamber.]

During the reign of Khufu a large number of fine tombs were built round about the Great Pyramid, and in some of them fine monolithic sarcophagi were placed. An excellent idea of this class of monument may be gained from an examination of the cast of the =sarcophagus of Khufu-ānkh= (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =19=).

Here, because the monument is associated with the name of Khufu in the inscription of Thothmes IV, must be mentioned the =Sphinx=, in Egyptian Ḥu 𓎛𓅱𓬖. The early history of this wonderful man-headed lion is unknown, but it seems that some work upon the rock out of which it was fashioned was undertaken by Khufu. Under the XIIth dynasty the headdress, called _nemmes_, was cut, and it is possible that an attempt was made to give the face some resemblance to that of Ȧmen-em-ḥāt III, or one of his predecessors, about the same time. At a later period the Sphinx was identified with Rā-Harmachis, probably under the influence of an ancient tradition which connected it with the Sun-god. It is 150 feet long and 70 feet high; the head is 30 feet long and the face 14 feet wide. Originally the face was painted a bright red, and traces of the colour are still visible. Traditions and superstitions have gathered about it in all ages, and it is probable that the rock out of which it was made was regarded with veneration in primitive times. In the Middle Ages the natives believed that the Sphinx kept the sands of the Western Desert from swallowing up the village of Gîzah. A portion of the painted limestone =uraeus=, or asp, =from the forehead= and a portion of the =beard of the Sphinx= are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =20= and =21=.

[Illustration: King Khāfrā (Chephren).]

Khufu was succeeded by =Ṭeṭ-f-Rā=, of whom nothing is known; and he again was succeeded by =Khā-f-Rā=, the =Chephren= of the Greek writers, who is famous chiefly as the builder of the =Second Pyramid= at Gîzah, called in Egyptian “Ur” 𓅨𓉴, _i.e._, the “Great.” Its height is about 450 feet, the length of each side at the base is 700 feet, and it is said to contain about 60,000,000 cubic feet of masonry, weighing some 4,883,000 tons. It was first opened by Belzoni (born 1778, died 1823) in 1816. It was originally cased with polished stone, but only towards the top has the casing been preserved. The illustration on page 171 shows the arrangement of the corridor and sarcophagus chamber, which is very different from that of the Great Pyramid. A funerary chapel was attached to the pyramid; and among those who ministered in it was =Rutchek=, the chief of the libationer priests, who calls himself a “friend of Pharaoh” 𓋴𓍋𓈖𓉐𓐰𓉻. (For an architrave and an inscription from his tomb see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =22= and =23=.) The Pyramid itself was in charge of the “royal kinsman” =Thethȧ=, who was the royal steward, and “overseer of the throne of Pharaoh,” and priest of Hathor and Neith. Two fine doors from the maṣṭaba tomb of Thethȧ are exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery (Bay 1, Nos. =24= and =25=), together with a short inscription referring to the burial of his father and mother (No. =26=). The perfection to which the sculptor’s art had attained at this period is well illustrated by the casts of =statues= of =Chephren=, from the hard stone originals in the Museum in Cairo, exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =27= and =28=. A fragment of an alabaster vessel from the king’s tomb, bearing his name, is in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 56.

[Illustration: King Menkaurā (Mykerinos).

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 30.]]

=Men-kau-Rā=, the Mykerinos of Greek writers, reigned, it is said, about sixty-three years; no details of his reign are known, and he is chiefly famous as the builder of the =Third Pyramid= at Gîzah, which the Egyptians called “Ḥer” 𓁷𓐰𓂋𓉴. This pyramid is between 210 and 215 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 350 feet. The illustration on page 202 shows the position of the corridors and the mummy chamber, which is 60 feet below the surface of the ground, and also indicates the damage which was done to the pyramid by the Khalîfa Al-Mâmûn, who, believing that it was full of gold and precious stones, tried to demolish it. The pyramid was originally cased with slabs of granite, many of which still remain in position. In the mummy chamber were discovered a =stone sarcophagus=, a =wooden coffin=, the cover of which was inscribed with the king’s names and titles and an extract from a religious text, and the =remains= of a =mummy= wrapped in a cloth. These were despatched by ship to England in 1838, but the ship was wrecked, and the sarcophagus was lost; the fragments of the coffin and the mummy were recovered, and are now exhibited in =Case B= in the First Egyptian Room. In the reign of Men-kau-Rā certain Chapters of the Book of the Dead were revised or composed by =Ḥeruṭāṭāf=, a son of Khufu, or Cheops, who was renowned for his learning. A cast of a =statue= of =Men-kau-Rā=, and a sepulchral stele of =Khennu=, a “royal kinsman” and councillor of the king, are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =30= and =31=.

In the reign of Men-kau-Rā was born a child to whom the name of =Ptaḥ-Shepses= was given, and who was a playfellow of the princes and princesses in the palace. In the reign of the next king, =Shepseskaf=, he married the royal princess =Maāt-khā= 𓌷𓐰𓂝𓐰𓏏𓈍𓐰𓂝, and lived on through the reigns of Userkaf, Saḥu-Rā, Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā, and two or three other kings of the Vth dynasty. Under each king he filled a number of important offices, and at his death was probably considerably more than 100 years old. He was buried in a fine large maṣṭaba tomb at Ṣaḳḳârah, from which the great door in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =32=, was taken. The façade is inscribed in fine bold hieroglyphics, and the sculptured decorations on the sides are good examples of the best funerary reliefs of the period. The upper parts of each of the main perpendicular lines of text contained the name of a king, but of these only two now remain.

[Illustration: Section of the Third Pyramid of Gîzah, built by Menkaurā (Mykerinos), showing the extent of the portions removed.]

[Illustration: PLATE XXI.

An Egyptian official of the IVth dynasty. Cast of the wooden statue of the Shêkh al-Balad, or “Shêkh of the Village.”

[Egyptian Vestibule, No. 35.]]

The beauty of the =statues of the IVth dynasty= is well illustrated by the painted limestone portrait statue of =Ȧn-kheft-ka=, a royal kinsman, which was found at Dahshûr (Bay 1, No. =33=), and the headless statue of an official found at Gîzah (Vestibule, No. =34=). The standing figures of the =Shêkh al-Balad= (see =Plate XXI=) and the =Scribe= are wonderful examples of fidelity to nature (see the casts in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =35= and =36=). The finest bas-relief of the period is that from the tomb of =Rā-ḥetep= at Mêdûm (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =40=); and the wall decorations of the ordinary maṣṭaba tomb of this time are illustrated by the sculptured slabs from the tombs of =Ȧri= (Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =41-43=), and =Ȧfȧ=, a steward and head-gardener (No. =44=), and =Ānkh-ḥaf=, the scribe (No. =45=), etc.

Fifth Dynasty. From Elephantine.

_About_ B.C. 3566.

The kings of this dynasty are: =Userkaf=, =Saḥu-Rā=, =Kakaȧ=, =Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā=, =Shepses-ka-Rā=, =Khā-nefer-Rā=, =User-en-Rā Ȧn=, =Men-kau-Ḥeru=, =Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā Ȧssȧ=, =Unȧs=. The reigns of all these kings, from a historical point of view, are comparatively unimportant. During the reign of =Userkaf= a great development of the cult of Rā took place in Egypt, and the worship of the Sun-god, according to the form established by the priests of Heliopolis, became dominant in the land. In the reign of Userkaf, or in that of one of his immediate successors, the title of “son of Rā” was added to the other royal titles, and, as the son of the Sun-god, the king took a special name. Userkaf built at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Āb-ȧst” 𓀆𓊨𓊨𓊨𓉴. =Saḥu-Rā= appears to have made a raid into Sinai, for he is represented in a rock-relief at Wâdî Maghârah in the traditional attitude of clubbing a native of the country. He built, at Abû-Ṣîr, the pyramid called “Khā-ba” 𓈍𓅡𓉴. For an alabaster vase inscribed with the Horus name of this king, =Neb-khāu=, see Wall-case 138, No. 58; and there is in the British Museum also a cylinder seal inscribed with his name (No. 48,023). The next important king of this dynasty is =User-en-Rā=, whose name, as son of Rā, was =Ȧn=. He carried on mining operations in Sinai, and probably suppressed revolts there among the natives; but details are wanting. He built at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Men-ȧst” 𓏠𓐰𓈖𓊨𓊨𓊨𓉴. From this, probably, came the fine grey granite funerary vase inscribed with his name 𓆥𓍹𓐼𓇳𓐰𓈖𓄊𓋴𓂋𓐽𓍺. (See Fourth Egyptian Room, Wall-case 194, No. 51.) Usertsen I, a king of the XIIth dynasty, wishing for some reason to commemorate User-en-Rā, dedicated to him a black =granite statue=, the lower portion of which is in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =48=. On one side of the throne is the royal prenomen, and on the other the nomen, which is repeated on the king’s belt. A plaster cast of a stone statue of User-en-Rā is also exhibited in the Vestibule, No. =49=.

[Illustration: King User-en-Rā Ȧn, B.C. 3433.

[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 49.]]

=Ȧssȧ=, the next king of importance, worked the quarries in Wâdî Ḥammâmât, near the old high road which ran from Ḳena on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, to a place near the modern Ḳuṣêr (Cosseir) on the Red Sea, and the copper and turquoise mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. He built at Abû-Ṣîr the pyramid called “Nefer” 𓄤𓉴. During the reign of Ȧssȧ a development of trade between Egypt and the Sûdân ensued, and an Egyptian official called Ba-ur-ṭeṭ succeeded in reaching the “Land of the Spirits” and bringing thence a pygmy _ṭenḳ_ 𓂧𓐰𓈖𓎼𓐰𓄔𓁌, whom he gave to the king. The pygmy actually came from the land of Punt, which tradition declares was the original home of the Egyptians. He was employed to dance the “dance of the gods” before the king. It seems to have been the custom in still earlier times to import pygmies from the Sûdân, for skeletons of two were found near the tomb of Semempses, a king of the Ist dynasty, at Abydos.

=Unȧs=, the last king of the Vth dynasty, the Onnos of Manetho, carried on the usual mining operations, and, it is said, built a temple to Hathor at Memphis. He is chiefly famous as the builder of the first of a very remarkable series of pyramids at Ṣaḳḳârah, the corridors and chamber walls of which were covered with series of formulae of the greatest value for the study of the Egyptian Religion. The pyramid of Unȧs was about 60 feet high, and the length of each side at the base was 220 feet; in front of its door stood a portico which rested on granite columns with palm-leaf capitals. One of these columns now stands in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =50=. (For an alabaster vase from his mummy chamber, inscribed with his name and titles 𓍹𓐼𓅭𓐴𓇳𓃹𓐰𓈖𓇋𓋴𓐽𓍺, see Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 57.)

The funerary reliefs of the Vth dynasty are very fine. Those worthy of note are: a “false door,” from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep=, a councillor and libationer and an officer of the palace of =Userkaf= (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =51=); a portion of the façade of the tomb of =Neka-ānkh=, a priest who ministered in the tomb of =Userkaf= (No. =52=); a massive “false door” from the tomb of =Ȧsȧ-ānkh=, from Ṣaḳḳârah (No. =53=); a slab sculptured in low relief with a figure of the royal kinswoman =Thethȧ= (No. =60=); and a slab from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep=, a chief of Nekheb (No. =61=).

Sixth Dynasty. From Memphis.

_About_ B.C. 3300.

The kings of this dynasty were:—

1. =Tetȧ.= 2. =Userka-Rā.= 3. =Rā-meri Pepi I.= 4. =Mer-en-Rā.= 5. =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi II.= 6. =Mer-en-Rā Tchefau(?)-em-sa-f.=

=Tetȧ=, the first king of this dynasty, was neither a warrior nor a great builder; and details of his reign are wanting. He built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah, the interior of the chambers and corridors of which are covered with inscriptions of a religious character; it is commonly known as the “Prison Pyramid.” Of the monuments of this king in the British Museum may be mentioned a =grant of land= to the god Khenti Ȧmenti of Abydos (Egyptian Vestibule, No. =74=); an alabaster =vase= from his pyramid, inscribed with his name and titles (Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 59 and 60); and a fine breccia =bull=, to which the royal names and titles have been added in recent times (No. 61).

Rā-meri, =or Pepi I=, was probably the greatest king of this dynasty. He worked the granite quarries at Elephantine, or Syene, and in the Wâdî Ḥammâmât, and he established his power in the Peninsula of Sinai, where he ruled the local tribes with a strong hand. His reign was one of industrial progress; and trade and handicrafts flourished throughout the country under his fostering care. Under the leadership of a favourite official named =Unȧ=, he despatched a very large army composed of men drawn from all parts of the Sûdân, to put down a wide-spread revolt which had broken out among the dwellers in the Eastern Desert called “the Āamu, who lived on the sand.” Unȧ gained a decisive victory, and was promoted to very high honours. Pepi I built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah, the walls of the chambers and corridors of which were covered with inscriptions of a religious character; from this comes the fine alabaster =vase=, inscribed with his name and titles, in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 66. (For two fine “false doors” from the tomb of =Qarta=, a high official of Pepi I, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =75=, =76=.)

Pepi I was succeeded by =Mer-en-Rā I Tchefau(?)-em-sa-f=, who carried on the works begun by his father, and built a pyramid at Ṣaḳḳârah, from which came the fine alabaster vase in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 66. He was succeeded by =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi II=, who according to tradition lived to the age of 100 years. During his reign Egypt was in a state of prosperity, and there was great activity in trade and handicrafts. At this time flourished the famous official =Ḥer-Khuf=, who was the master of a caravan which traded between Egypt and the Sûdân, which country he visited four times. On the last occasion he brought back a =pygmy= from “the land of the Spirits,” which King Pepi II bade him bring to Memphis. Detailed orders were sent to the effect that the pygmy was to be watched during the day so that he might not fall into the water, and his sleeping place was to be visited ten times each night by properly qualified people, for, said the king: “I wish to see him more than all the tributes of Sinai and Punt.” Other prominent traders in the Sûdân on behalf of the king at this time were Pepi-nekht, Mekhu, who died there, and whose body was brought back to Egypt by his son Sabben, etc.

Among the objects of the time of Pepi II may be mentioned a =portion= of a =doorway= made by him at Abydos, and a sepulchral stele of =Nefer-Sennȧ=, from his tomb at Denderah (Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. =77= and =78=). Among the priests who ministered in the chapel attached to the pyramid of Pepi II was =Heb-peri=, whose stele is exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. =79=. The most important monument of his reign is the =maṣṭaba tomb= of =Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ=, a royal kinsman and scribe, libationer, and councillor, from Ṣaḳḳârah, which has been re-built in the =Assyrian Saloon= (No. =80=). It is a good typical example of the tomb of noblemen and high officials of the period. The painted reliefs are interesting, and are typical of the wall decorations of tombs towards the close of the VIth dynasty. The inscriptions show that both Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ and his wife were buried in the chamber beneath the maṣṭaba; the list of offerings, some 90 in number, is exceptionally long.

Of the last king of the VIth dynasty, =Mer-en-Rā II Tchefa-em-sa-f=, nothing is known.

The funerary art of this period is well illustrated by the stelae and “false doors” of: =Sennu= (Bay 1, No. =81=), =Ptaḥ-ḥetep=, a priest (No. =82=), =Erṭā-en-ānkh=, a royal kinsman and councillor (No. =83=), =Uthenȧa=, whose “good name” was Penȧ (a very interesting relief, No. =84=), =Ȧṭu=, a scribe and superintendent of the “Great House of the Six” (No. =85=), =Behenu=, a priestess of Hathor (No. =88=), and a portion of a slab from the =roof= of =a tomb=, with flutings, which are probably intended to represent tree trunks (No. =90=). All these, with the exception of No. 81, are in the Egyptian Vestibule. To this period also probably belong the =libation tanks=, and =tablet for offerings= of =Ȧntḳes=, =Khart-en-Khennu=, and =Senb= (Bay 14, Nos. =93-95=).

Besides the larger remains of this period, the =scarabs= in the Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room should be examined. Several of them are inscribed with names of the kings of the first six dynasties, but it is not certain how many, or if any, of such scarabs are contemporaneous, and for this reason they have not been described in the preceding paragraphs. On the other hand, of the fine collection of =scarabs of officials=, inscribed with their titles, scores certainly belong to the period of the first half of the Ancient Empire, and are of the greatest interest and historical value.

The monuments prove that between the IVth and VIth dynasties the Egyptians lived in a state of serfdom, and that they regarded their king as the owner of both their souls and bodies. He was the very essence of God in human form upon earth, and his power was absolute; even in the Other World his authority was held to be equal to that of the great gods of the dead. The Pharaohs of this period were masters of the Peninsula of Sinai, and of the Eastern Desert between Egypt and the Red Sea; and the memory of the raid which Seneferu made in the Sûdân probably induced the warlike tribes of that country to permit Egyptian caravans to pass from Syene to the Blue and White Niles unmolested.

At the close of the VIth dynasty a period of general disorder appears to have set in, the chiefs of cities such as Suten-ḥenen (Herakleopolis), Asyûṭ and Thebes contending among themselves for supremacy. Of the history of this period nothing is known. According to Manetho (version of Africanus) we have:—

Seventh Dynasty. From Memphis.

Seventy kings in seventy days.

Eighth Dynasty. From Memphis.

Twenty-seven kings in 146 years.

The Tablet of Abydos supplies after Neter-ka-Rā, the name of the last king of the VIth dynasty, the following sixteen names, which represent, presumably, the kings of the VIIIth dynasty:—

=1.= =Men-ka-Rā.= =2.= =Nefer-ka-Rā.= =3.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Nebi.= =4.= =Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā ...= =5.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Khenṭu.= =6.= =Mer-en-Ḥeru.= =7.= =Senefer-ka.= =8.= =N-ka-Rā.= =9.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Tererl.= =10.= =Nefer-ka-Ḥeru.= =11.= =Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi senb.= =12.= =Senefer-ka Ȧnnu.= =13.= =... kau-Rā.= =14.= =Nefer-kau-Rā.= =15.= =Nefer-kau-Ḥeru.= =16.= =Nefer-ȧri-ka-Rā.=

Under the rule of these kings the princes of Herakleopolis succeeded in gaining their independence, and thus the seat of the government of Egypt was removed from Memphis up the river to Suten-ḥenen, the modern Ahnâs, about 60 miles south of Cairo.

Ninth Dynasty.

Nineteen kings in 409 years.

Tenth Dynasty.

Nineteen kings in 185 years.

The Turin Papyrus contains a series of fragmentary names, which may represent those of the kings of one or the other of these dynasties; the fourth of these is =Khati=, whose name is also found on a rock in the First Cataract, and on a bronze bowl in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris.

Among the kings of the =Tenth Dynasty= may be placed king =Ka-meri-Rā= in whose reign lived =Khati=, prince of Siut, or Asyûṭ. About this time war appears to have been going on between the princes of Herakleopolis and the princes of Thebes, and the prince of Siut sent troops to support the Herakleopolitans against the Thebans. For a time the Thebans were beaten, but at length they gained the mastery over the princes of the North, and founded a new dynasty.

Of the period represented by dynasties VII-X there are no monuments in the British Museum, with perhaps the exception of a few scarabs.

Eleventh Dynasty. From Thebes.

_About_ B.C. 2600.

The founder of this dynasty was, most probably, =Ȧntefȧ=, a local chief of the Thebaïd, whose titles were ERPĀ 𓂋𓐰𓊪𓐰𓂝 and ḤĀ 𓄂, and “great prince of the nome of the Thebaïd, the satisfier of the heart of the king, the controller of the Gates of the Cataract, the support of the South, making the two banks of the Nile to live, chief of the Priests, the loyal servant of the Great God, the Lord of Heaven.” He was probably succeeded by two or three chiefs of similar name who made no claim to the sovereignty of the Northern Kingdom, which was then in the hands of the princes of Herakleopolis. The first of Ȧntefȧ’s successors who claimed to be “King of the South and of the North,” and “Lord of the two Lands,” _i.e._, all Egypt, was =Uaḥ-ānkh Ȧntef-āa=, who was succeeded by =Nekht-neb-ṭep-nefer Ȧntef=, and he was followed by =Sānkh-ȧb-taui Menthu-ḥetep I=. These facts are derived from the important stele of =Ȧntef=, a priestly official, which is exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. =99= (see =Plate XXII=). Among the officials who flourished in the reign of Uaḥ-Ȧntef and his son was =Thethȧ=, whose sepulchral stele, inscribed with a biographical notice, is exhibited in the same Bay (No. =100=). From his tomb also came the inscription which formed the façade (No. =101=), and the reliefs (Nos. =102=, =103=), on which are represented members of the family of the deceased bearing offerings. The order of the remaining kings of the dynasty is doubtful. Several of them were called =Menthu-ḥetep=, and they may be distinguished by their prenomens thus:—

=Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.= =Neb-taui-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.= =Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.= =S-ānkh-ka-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.=

The first of these kings, =Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep=, probably Menthu-ḥetep II, appears to have been an able ruler, who reigned for about 46 years. He was a great warrior, and established his authority from one end of Egypt to the other. Among his other achievements was the pacifying of the Āamu, or the tribes of the Eastern Desert and Sinai. He built a fine temple at Dêr al-Baḥarî, the remains of which have been recently discovered and excavated. This building is unique in being associated with a pyramid-tomb. The fragments of the painted limestone reliefs which have been found among its ruins lack nothing in finish, fidelity to nature, and execution, whilst in design and general treatment they may be compared with some of the best funerary reliefs of the Vth dynasty. In the Northern Gallery, Bay 3, an interesting collection of such fragments is exhibited, and worthy of note are: Head of a painted limestone statue of Neb-ḥapt-Rā Menthu-ḥetep, wearing the crown of the South (No. =104=); portion of a painted relief, with a figure of the king being embraced by Rā (No. =105=); relief, with a seated figure of the king and his prenomen 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓎟𓊤𓐽𓍺 (No. =106=); relief, with a figure of a king grasping an Āamu foe by one leg (No. =108=); relief, with a figure of a =hippopotamus= (No. =110=); relief, with a figure of a prince called =Menthu-ḥetep= (No. =111=); slab, inscribed =Sma-taui=, the Horus name of the king (No. =117=); and a portion of an inscription referring to the overthrow of the Āamu by the king (No. =118=).

[Illustration: PLATE XXII.

Tablet of Ȧntet, an official who flourished in the reigns of three kings of the XIth dynasty, about B.C. 2600. _Scene_: A priest making offering to the deceased and his three wives.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 99.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XXIII.

Sepulchral tablet of Sebek-āa, an overseer of transport, sculptured with scenes representing the presentation of offerings, etc.

XIth dynasty, B.C. 2600.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 120.]]

To the period of the XIth dynasty may be attributed the following interesting tablets and reliefs: Relief, from the tomb of =Sebek-āa= at Ḳurnah (see =Plate XXIII=), on which are represented the preparations for a funeral feast, the figure of the deceased lying on his bier, etc. (Bay 4, No. =120=). The cutting of the figures and design is of a most unusual character; and for the general treatment of the subject this stele is probably unique. Other tablets, probably somewhat later in date, are: Tablet of =Khensu-user=, set up by his son Seḥetep-ȧb (Bay 3, No. =121=), tablet of =Sa-Menthu= (Bay 2, No. =122=), tablet of =Menthu-ḥetep= (Vestibule, North Wall, No. =123=), and tablet of =Mer-shesu-Ḥeru= and his friends (Bay 2, No. =124=). The portion of a wooden coffin inscribed in hieratic with part of the =XVIIth Chapter= of the Book of the Dead, in Wall-case 87 in the Second Egyptian Room, belongs to this period; the text was written for one of the =Menthu-ḥetep= kings.

During the reign of =Sānkh-ka-Rā Menthu-ḥetep=, who was probably the last king of the dynasty, an expedition, under the command of a general, Ḥennu, was despatched to =Punt=, by way of the Red Sea. The object of the expedition was to obtain a supply of =ānti= 𓂝𓐰𓈖𓅂𓈒𓐰𓏦, or =myrrh=, which was largely used for purposes of embalming. Ḥennu succeeded in reaching Punt, and in bringing back large quantities of all the products of that remote country. Details of the reign of Sānkh-ka-Rā are wanting, but with, or soon after, his death the XIth dynasty and the Ancient Empire came to an end. The length of the period which elapsed between the close of the VIth and the close of the XIth dynasty is unknown. Some authorities make the interval between the VIth and the XIIth dynasty to be about 650 years, others less than 500 years, and others less still.

The following monuments probably belong to the period which immediately preceded the rise to supreme power of Ȧmenemḥāt I, the first king of the XIIth dynasty: Black granite seated statue of =Menthu-āa=, or =Āa-Menthu=, an Erpā and Ḥā Prince, son of the lady Mert (Vestibule, No. =127=); tablet of the lady =Nefert-tu=, set up in her honour by her son Menthu-ḥetep (Bay 1, No. =128=), and the tablets of =User= (Bay 1, No. =129=), and =Ȧqer= (Bay 1, No. =130=). The tablet of =Ȧntef=, son of the lady Qeḥet, or Ḥeqt, and overseer of the king’s cattle and preserves of water fowl (Vestibule, No. =133=), and the important inscription of =Ȧntef=, the son of the lady Mait (Bay 4, No. =134=), and the Prayer of =N-Ȧntef-ȧqer= to Ȧnpu, lord of Sepau (Vestibule, No. =135=), are all interesting, and are characteristic productions of this period.