CHAPTER XI.

MIDDLE EMPIRE.

Twelfth Dynasty. From Thebes.

_About_ B.C. 2466.

[Sidenote: B.C. 2466.]

=Ȧmenemḥāt I=, the first king of the XIIth dynasty, appears to have ascended the throne after a period of anarchy, and, even after his accession, the members of his own household conspired against him. The king tells us, in his =Instructions=, how one night, after he had composed himself to sleep, a number of armed men burst into his chamber and tried to murder him. Leaping from his couch he attacked his assailants, and put them to flight. (See Sallier Papyri I and III, and the slice of stone No. 41 in Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room.) Ȧmenemḥāt drew up a survey of the country, and set boundaries to each nome, or province, and he framed a set of regulations for the supply of water for irrigation to the different towns. Work went on in the quarries of Ḥammâmât and Ṭura, and the king restored the temples at Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, etc., and founded a temple to Ȧmen at Karnak. He built the fortified palace of Thet-taui 𓎁𓇾𓐰𓇾𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊖, near Memphis, and a pyramid tomb called “Qā” 𓈎𓀠𓉴, at Lisht. He invaded the Sûdân, conquered the four great tribes there, viz., the =Mātchaiu=, the =Uauaiu=, the =Satiu=, and the =Ḥeriu-shā=, and made himself master of their country as far as the modern Korosko or Ibrîm (Primis). His reign was prosperous, and in his time “no man went hungry or thirsty.” He associated his son Usertsen I with him in the rule of the kingdom in the 20th year of his reign.

[Sidenote: B.C. 2433.]

=Usertsen I= was a great builder, and he rebuilt, or re-founded, the famous temple of Ȧnnu, the =On= of the Bible and the Heliopolis of classical writers, the sanctuary of the =Bull= Mer-ur (=Mnevis=). Before the temple he set up two obelisks, the pyramidions of which were cased in copper; the one now standing is 65 feet high. He set up an obelisk at Begig in the Fayyûm, and carried on the works of restoration of the temples which his father had begun. In the 43rd year of his reign he invaded Nubia, and compelled the tribes to pay him tribute, which the official Ȧmeni collected and brought safely to Egypt. Ȧmeni was despatched twice subsequently to Nubia to bring back =gold= and other products of the Sûdân. The name given to Nubia in the inscription which records these facts is =Kash= 𓎡𓄿𓈚𓐰𓈉, hence the Biblical =Cush=, which does not, however, mean Ethiopia in the modern sense of the term, but Nubia. Usertsen I built a fort and a temple at Behen, the modern Wâdî Ḥalfah, and appointed a “Governor of the South” to rule over Nubia, or the Northern Sûdân. The old copper mines in the Wâdî Maghârah were reopened, and new ones at Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim were also worked; the king built his pyramid tomb at Lisht, and associated his son with him in the rule of the kingdom a year before he died.

Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned: A fine red granite stele on which are sculptured figures of Khnemu and Sati, gods of the First Cataract, and his Horus name, from Philae (Bay 5, No. =136=); head of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen I, wearing the Crown of the South (Bay 1, No. =137=); and a fragment of a chalcedony vase inscribed with the king’s prenomen 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓆣𓂓𓐽𓍺 (No. 67, Wall-case 138, Fourth Egyptian Room). Of his officials there are the painted stele of =Ȧthi=, who died in the 14th year of the king’s reign (Bay 3, No. =138=); the stele of =Neferu=, the overseer of the royal water-transport at Behen, or Wâdî Ḥalfah (Bay 3, No. =139=), and two stelae and a statue of =Ȧntef=, the son of Sebek-unnu and the lady Sent. Ȧntef was a confidential servant of the king and superintended the royal private apartments in the palace; he died four years before his master, _i.e._, in the 39th year of the reign of Usertsen I. (See Bay 1, No. =140=; Bay 3, Nos. =141= and =142=.)

[Illustration: PLATE XXIV.

Sepulchral tablet and seated portrait figure of Sa-Hathor, a mining inspector in the Sûdân, in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II, B.C. 2400.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 143.]]

[Sidenote: B.C. 2400.]

The reign of =Ȧmenemḥāt II= was prosperous, but uneventful; and no military expeditions of importance were necessary either in the Peninsula of Sinai or in Nubia. There was a large colony of Egyptians at Sarâbît al-Khâdim, and a temple was built there in this reign to Hathor, the goddess “of the land of the turquoise.” The search for gold was carried on actively in the Sûdân, under the direction of =Sa-Hathor=, who tells us on his stele (Bay 1, No. =143=; see =Plate XXIV=) that he worked in the mining districts when he was a young man, and that he made the chiefs wash out the gold; he brought back turquoises and went to the =Land of the Blacks=, or Sûdân, and collected the products of the country for his master. His knowledge of stone working induced the king to send him to superintend the hewing of the ten royal statues which he placed before his pyramid tomb. An interesting event of this period was the despatch of an =expedition to Punt= under the direction of Khent-khat-ur, who returned safely with his men in the 28th year of the king’s reign. In the third year of Ȧmenemḥāt II died the Erpā =Sa-Menthu=, a royal scribe and overseer of works. He was born in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt I, and was appointed scribe, etc., by Usertsen I. His sepulchral stele is a fine example of its class (Bay 6, No. =145=). Another interesting stele of this reign is that of =Khenti-em-semti=, a royal official, and confidential servant and treasurer to the king; he visited Elephantine and Abydos (Bay 1, No. =146=). The official =Khenti-em-semt-ur= was a libationer priest who ministered in the chapel attached to the royal pyramid called “Kherp” 𓌂𓉴𓊖𓐰𓏏𓐱𓏤 (Bay 1, No. =147=). The =door socket= (Bay 5, No. =148=), dated in the 30th year of the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II, comes from a royal building in Lower Egypt, and the seated figure of Hathor (Bay 1, No. =149=), dedicated to the goddess by Seneferu, the overseer of the boats, from Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim, dates from the time of the opening of the new mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. The three dated stelae of =Ȧmenemḥāt= (13th year), =Seḥetepȧb= (19th year), and =Menu-Nefer= (29th year) are valuable examples of the funerary stelae of this reign (Bay 1, No. =150=; Bay 7, No. =151=; and Bay 5, No. =152=), and the stelae of =Seneferu= (Bay 3, No. =153=), and =Sen-ȧtef= (Bay 1, No. =154=).

[Sidenote: B.C. 2366.]

The reign of =Usertsen II= was long and prosperous, but uneventful. Active labour went on in the turquoise and gold mines, and the quarries at Elephantine were worked under the direction of Sa-Renput, the Governor of Nubia. Usertsen II built a pyramid tomb at Al-Lâhûn, of wonderful design and construction. It seems that he developed trade in the Red Sea, and took care to keep in check the tribes of the Eastern Desert. Classical writers call him “Sesostris” and describe him as a great conqueror and traveller, but up to the present the Egyptian monuments have not justified these assertions. Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned the stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, the boat-builder, and =Tchaa=, a palace official (Bay 9, No. =155=, and Bay 1, No. =156=), each of which is dated in the 6th year of Usertsen II, and the lower portion of a black granite figure of =Sa-Renput=, the “Great Chief in Ta-Kenset” (_i.e._, Nubia), the “great father of the King of the South, and the great one of the King of the North.” Sa-Renput held many high offices at Elephantine and was one of the greatest of the feudal chiefs of his time (Vestibule, No. =157=).

[Sidenote: B.C. 2333.]

=Usertsen III=, who was associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom, was probably the greatest king of the XIIth dynasty. The principal events of his reign were the conquest and occupation of all the Northern Sûdân. As a preparation for this work, he made, or cleared out, a canal about 250 feet long, 34½ feet wide, and 26 feet deep, in the First Cataract, so that he might pass boats through it to the south. In the 8th year of his reign he sailed up to Wâdî Ḥalfah, and, passing on to one of the great “Gates” in the Second Cataract, he built two forts, one on each bank, at the places now called Semnah (west bank) and Kummah (east bank). He also built a fort to the north, on the Island Gazîrat al-Malik, and others probably on the islands in the Nile to the south. In fact, he occupied the whole of the gold-producing country of the Northern Sûdân. He set up a stele at Semnah to mark the limit of his kingdom on the south, and caused to be inscribed on it a decree in which the Blacks were prohibited from entering Egyptian territory without permission. Eight years later he set up two inscribed stelae in which he vaunted his own boldness, prompt action, and invincibility, and abused the Blacks, calling them cowards, runaways, etc. He says: “I have seen them, I made no mistake about them. I seized their women, I carried off their men and women when I came to their wells, I slew their bulls, I destroyed their grain, and set fire [to their houses].” Usertsen III established a line of forts at regular intervals along the River Nile between Elephantine and the famous rock called Gebel Dôsha, and garrisoned them with Egyptian troops; and was thus able to ensure the safe transport of gold into Egypt, where the precious metal was required in ever-increasing quantities. He repaired and added to many of the great temples of Egypt, _e.g._, Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Thebes, Elephantine, etc., and he built a pyramid tomb for himself at Dahshûr. Among the monuments of this king and his reign may be mentioned: Three grey granite =statues of Usertsen III= (Nos. =158=, =159=, =160=) which were found in the South Court of the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep at Dêr al-Baḥarî. These fine statues appear to represent the king at different periods of his life, and in finish and execution they stand unrivalled among the monuments of the period. On the plinth of No. =158= (Bay 1) are cut the king’s Horus name =Neter Kheperu=, and his name as king of the South and North (see above, page 116) 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓈍𓂓𓂓𓂓𓐽𓍺 (see =Plate XXV=). Head of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen III (Bay 1, No. =161=); a portion of a seated figure of the king from Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim (Bay 1, No. =162=); and the lower portions of two quartzite statues of the king (Vestibule, Nos. =163=, =164=). No. 164 was usurped by Uasarken II, of the XXIInd dynasty, who cut his cartouches upon the pedestal. The building activity of the king at Bubastis is marked by the granite slabs from that site in Bay 23 (Nos. =166= and =167=) on which is cut the royal prenomen. No. 167 is of interest, for here we see part of the prenomen of Rameses II cut over that of Usertsen III. Of the prominent officials who flourished in this reign we have the stele of =Ȧn-ḥer-nekht=, the =overseer of the granaries=, dated in the 7th year (Bay 1, No. =168=); the stele of =Ȧmeni=, who carried out certain works at Elephantine in connexion with the king’s expedition into Nubia, dated in the 8th year (Bay 3, No. =169=); and the stele of =Sebek-ḥetep=, a warder of a temple, dated in the 13th year (Bay 5, No. =170=).

[Illustration: PLATE XXV.

Granite statue of Usertsen III, B.C. 2330.

XIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 159.]]

[Sidenote: B.C. 2300.]

=Ȧmenemḥāt III= reigned about fifty years, and devoted all his energies to improving the prosperity of his kingdom. Art, sculpture, architecture, and trade of all kinds flourished under his fostering care; and the remains of his buildings and inscribed monuments bear witness to the activity which must have prevailed among all classes of handicraftsmen during his reign. The mines of Sinai, the Wâdî Ḥammâmât, Ṭura, and elsewhere were diligently worked, and the king carried out large irrigation works in connexion with the great =natural reservoir= in the Fayyûm, which is commonly known by the name of =Lake Moeris= (from the Egyptian Mu-ur, or Ma-ur) 𓈗𓅨𓐰𓂋, 𓈘𓅨𓐰𓂋𓈗. The circumference of this reservoir was 150 miles, and its area 750 square miles; its average level was 80 feet above the Mediterranean. In Nubia also he appears to have undertaken irrigation works, for several “levels” are cut on the rocks near the Forts of Usertsen III at Semnah and Kummah, with the years of the king’s reign in which they were cut. They show that the level of the river during the inundation was about 26 feet higher than it is at the present time. Ȧmenemḥāt III is also thought to have built the =Labyrinth=, which Herodotus says (ii, 148) contained twelve courts, and 3,000 chambers, 1,500 above ground and 1,500 under ground, and covered an area about 1,000 feet long and 800 feet broad. It was dedicated to the crocodile-god Sebek; and many sacred crocodiles were buried in a place specially set apart for them. Ȧmenemḥāt III built a pyramid at Ḥawârah, and he and his daughter Ptaḥ-Nefert were buried in it. From the ruins of the chapel at the entrance to this pyramid came the limestone slab inscribed with the king’s names and titles exhibited in Bay 5 (No. =171=).

Foremost among the monuments of this reign must be mentioned the colossal grey granite seated statue, and the head, which probably belongs to it, exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (Bay 22, Nos. =774=, =775=; see =Plate XXVI=). The inscription on the pedestal of the throne was cut there by order of Uasarken II, a king of the XXIInd dynasty; but it is certain that an earlier inscription existed, which was erased to make room for the new one. The features of the face and the general treatment of the head resemble those of all other extant inscribed statues and figures of Ȧmenemḥāt III; compare the cast of the statue in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg (Bay 2, No. =172=), and the cast of a head from a statue of the king (No. 172, in Wall-case 101, in the Third Egyptian Room). To his reign also belong the famous =sphinxes= which were found at Ṣân (Tanis) in 1861, and were for many years attributed to the Hyksos, because the name of Ȧpepȧ was cut on a shoulder of one of them. On the cast of one of these exhibited in the Central Saloon (No. =173=) are inscribed cartouches of Rameses II, Mer-en-Ptaḥ II, and Pasebkhānut. Of officials who flourished in this reign we have the fine white limestone =shrine of Pa-suten-sa=, from Mêdûm, surmounted by the figure of a hawk (Bay 1, No. =174=); the stele of =Nebpu-Usertsen=, one of the king’s personal attendants (Bay 2, No. 175); the stele of =Usertsen-senbu= 𓄊𓋴𓂋𓐰𓏏𓐰𓊃𓐰𓈖𓋴𓈖𓐰𓃀𓋴𓈖𓐰𓃀𓋴𓈖𓐰𓃀, a veritable royal kinsman, and a commissioner of the revenue, dated in the 25th year of the king’s reign (Bay 1, No. =177=); and the =stele and altar of Sebek-ḥer-ḥeb= and =Kemen=, dated in the 44th year of the king’s reign[32] (Bay 3, Nos. =179=, =180=). The stele of =Tati-ānkef= (Bay 5, No. =181=), the son of =Tenȧuit=, is of peculiar interest, for it was found in Malta (see page 220).

[Illustration: PLATE XXVI.

Head of a colossal seated statue of Ȧmenemḥāt III (?), B.C. 2300.

[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 22, No. 774.]]

The reign of =Ȧmenemḥāt IV= was short, and monuments of his reign are few. His name is found on the rocks in the copper mines in Sinai, and on a rock at Kummah in Nubia, but details of his reign are wanting. An interesting glazed steatite plaque, bearing his name and that of =Prince Ȧmeni=, will be found in Wall-case 150 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 1.

[Illustration: Shrine dedicated to Osiris by Pa-suten-sa, scribe, who flourished in the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt III, B.C. 2300.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 174.]]

The last ruler of this dynasty was =Sebek-neferut-Rā=, the Skemiophris of Manetho, and sister of Ȧmenemḥāt IV; her reign was short, and her monuments are few. The most important is the glazed =cylinder-seal= inscribed with four of her royal names, exhibited in Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. =134=.

In connexion with the XIIth dynasty must be mentioned King =Ḥer=, who may have been a son of Ȧmenemḥāt III, or of Usertsen III (see his scarab, No. 37,652), and an Usertsen with the prenomen of =Seneferȧb-Rā=, who is sometimes called =Usertsen IV=.

[Illustration: Sepulchral stele of Tatiankef, the son of Tenȧuit. Found in Malta.

XIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 5, No. 181.]]

The rule of the XIIth dynasty was long and prosperous; and art, and sculpture, and literature flourished. The art of the period is developed directly out of that of the Ancient Empire, but one of the most prominent characteristics is an increased tendency towards realism which is especially seen in the designs and workmanship of small objects. The =Scarabs= of the XIIth dynasty are particularly interesting and beautiful, and a splendid set of examples is exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =sepulchral stelae= of the period are also very interesting, and many of them exhibit clearly the transition stages between the “false door” of the maṣṭaba tomb of the Ancient Empire and the stele, or tablet, which stood by itself in the tomb. The British Museum Collection is rich in XIIth dynasty stelae, comprising examples of every important variety. The inscriptions upon them usually open with the formula =suten-ṭā-ḥetep=, 𓇓𓏙𓊵𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊪 which is followed by a prayer to one or more gods for sepulchral offerings and for “glory in heaven, strength upon earth, and triumph in the Other World.” Opinions differ as to the meaning of the formula _suten ṭā ḥetep_. Some think that it is a prayer to “the king to give an offering”; and others that it is a prayer for “an offering like that of a king”; and many different renderings have been proposed by Egyptologists. It is of course possible that, under the IVth dynasty, the formula may have been a prayer that an offering might be given by the king, for the king was regarded as the equal of Anubis and Osiris and other gods of the dead; but it is manifestly impossible that every man throughout Egypt could expect the king to send him an offering at his death, and we are therefore driven to conclude that the original meaning of the formula was forgotten at a very early period, and that it was only prefixed to funerary texts at the dictates of custom or tradition. If it had any meaning at all in the later dynasties, it would probably be that of a petition to one or more gods for the gift of an offering like unto that made for a king after his death. Sepulchral stelae are also valuable because they give the titles of the offices held by deceased persons, and because they often supply biographies of men who played important parts in the history of their country.

Among stelae and other monuments of historical value of this period may be mentioned: Stele from the tomb of =Khnemu-ḥetep= at Beni-Hasan (Vestibule, No. =182=); statue of =Ȧmenemḥāt=, a veritable royal kinsman,[33] and =master= of =the robes= (Bay 1, No. =183=); seated figure of =Ȧmeni=, inscribed with a prayer for offerings (Bay 1, No. =184=); stele of =Nekhtȧ=, a Ḥā Prince (Bay 1, No. =185=); stele of =Ȧnḥer-nekht=, =chief clerk= of =grain supply= (Bay 1, No. =186=); stele of =Ȧntef=, an overseer of priests (Bay 1, No. =187=); stele of =Sa-Ȧnḥer=, a deputy keeper of the seal, with figures of eighteen of his children and relatives bearing offerings (Bay 1, No. =189=); stele of the lady =Khu=, with figures of her two husbands and twelve children (Bay 1, No. =190=); stele set up to =the memory= of =sixteen persons= and their mothers (Bay 2, No. =191=); stele of =Sebek-āāiu=, with hieroglyphics inlaid with blue paste (Bay 2, No. =193=); stele of =Ȧmeni=, of unusual style (Bay 2, No. =194=); stele of =Erṭā-Ȧntef-Ṭāṭāu=, a governor of the Sûdân (Bay 4, No. =196=); and stele of =Ȧntef=, with an inscription of twenty lines in which the deceased describes his virtues and abilities (Bay 7, No. =197=). As examples of the wall-paintings on the tombs of this period may be mentioned the slabs from the tomb of =Teḥuti-ḥetep=, a high official who flourished during the reign of Ȧmenemḥāt II (Bay 2, Nos. =198-200=; Bay 7, No. =201=). To the same period, or a little later, belongs the sandstone =obelisk= which was set up to the memory of an Egyptian official of the copper mines at Ṣarâbît al-Khâdim in the Peninsula of Sinai (Bay 1, No. =202=).

The other monuments of the XIIth dynasty consist of =altars=, or =tablets for offerings=, of which a considerable number are exhibited in =Bays 14, 16, and 17=. Among the altars of the XIIth dynasty may be noted that of the Ḥā prince =Usertsen=, a superintendent of the prophets, sculptured with figures of vases and two tanks, and inscribed with an address to the living (Bay 17, No. =269=). The altar is a rectangular, flat slab of stone, with a projection which was intended to serve as a spout, from which the drink offerings were supposed to run off into a vessel placed to receive them. In the altar small rectangular tanks were sometimes cut, but usually the surface was sculptured with figures of haunches of meat, bread-cakes, fruit, flowers, unguent vases, libation jars, etc., and on the edges and sides were inscribed prayers for funerary offerings of meat and drink and for things which were deemed necessary for the dead. The Egyptians believed that the material things placed on such altars possessed, like animated creatures, two bodies and spirits; their bodies were consumed by the priests and others, and their spirits by the gods. Some believed in the transmutation of offerings.

We now come to a period, _i.e._, that of the =XIIIth, XIVth, XVth, XVIth, and XVIIth= dynasties, which is full of difficulties. Not only is the order of the succession of the kings of these dynasties unknown, but authorities differ greatly in their estimate of the length of the period of their rule. Some say that the interval between the XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties consisted of more than 500 years, and others that it was less than 200 years. The figures given by Manetho are as follows:—

=XIIIth= =dynasty.= From Thebes. 60 kings in 453 years. =XIVth= ” ” Xoïs. 76 ” in 184 (or 484 years). =XVth= ” =Shepherds.= 6 ” in 284 years. =XVIth= ” =Shepherds.= 32 ” in 518 years. =XVIIth= ” =Shepherds.= 5 (?) kings in 151 years.

[Illustration: PLATE XXVII.

Granite statue of King Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā.

XIIIth or XIVth dynasty, B.C. 2000.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 276.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.

Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Rā, a king of the XIIIth dynasty, about B.C. 2000.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 2, No. 277.]]

[Illustration: PLATE XXIX.

Memorial cone of Sebek-ḥetep, a scribe, who flourished in the reign of Sebek-em-sa-f, B.C. 2000.

XIIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 1, No. 280.]]

The total of these years is 1,590 according to one reckoning and 1,290 according to another, but it is impossible to accept either, and we must therefore assume that the total of 1,590 or 1,290 years represents the length of the reigns of the kings at Thebes, and of those who ruled in the Delta. In fact it is clear that, except at rare intervals, between the XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties a king of the North and a king of the South were always reigning at the same time in Egypt, and that neither was sufficiently strong to make himself master of the whole country. The evidence derived from the monuments seems to indicate that the power of the Theban kings declined steadily at the beginning of this period, and that, as it declined, the power of the nomad Semites from the east, who are known as =Hyksos= or =Shepherds=, increased until the end of the period, when the Theban kings became strong enough to make themselves masters of the whole country. The names of a considerable number of kings, who may be assumed to have reigned during the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties, are known from scarabs and larger monuments, but nothing is known of their reigns.

Of the monuments of the period in the British Museum may be specially noted: Red granite seated figure of =Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā=, a king of the XIIIth or XIVth dynasty. This is a fine piece of sculpture, and is unlike any other statue in the gallery. The body lacks the heaviness of the statues of the earlier period. On the throne are cut, in outline, figures of two lions placed back to back. Above them are the signs _sa ānkh_ 𓎂𓋹, _i.e._, the “fluid of life,” which the king derived from Rā, the Sun-god (see =Plate XXVII=; Bay 1, No. =276=). Of interest also are three stelae of private individuals, each of which mentions the name of a king, viz., =Sekhem-ka-Rā= (see =Plate XXVIII=), with the Horus name of Sānkh-taui (Bay 2, No. =277=), =Sebek-ḥetep=, with the prenomen of Khā-nefer-Rā (Bay 5, No. =278=), and =Ȧb-ȧā= (Bay 5, No. =279=). To this period belongs the =axe handle= of =Sekhem-uatch-taui-Rā= (Sebek-ḥetep) a king (Table-case E, Third Egyptian Room, No. 104). To a somewhat later period belong the interesting =memorial cone= of the scribe Sebek-ḥetep, who flourished in the reign of =Sebek-em-sa-f= (see =Plate XXIX=), of the XIVth dynasty, a unique object (Bay 1, No. =280=), and the royal inscribed green stone =scarab, with a human face=, set in a gold plinth, which probably came from the tomb of this king at Thebes (Table-case J, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 195). Of interest, too, are the =royal stele= of the little-known king =Ȧp-uat-em-sau-f= (Bay 3, No. =281=); the stele of =Ḥetep-neteru= and =Teḥuti-āa=, which mentions another hitherto unknown king (Bay 4, No. =282=); the stele of Ptaḥ-sānkh, mentioning king =Rā-Ḥetep= (Bay 5, No. =283=); and the slab from the temple of Osorkon II at Bubastis, inscribed with the name of =Sekhem-khu-taui-Rā= (Bay 23, No. =284=).

To a great many stelae of private individuals, who flourished between the XIIth and the XVIIIth dynasties, it is difficult to assign exact dates, for very few of them mention royal names, and the inscriptions cut on them afford no clue. Fine examples of the transition period of funerary sculpture, stelae, etc., are: Stele of =Nebȧ=, an inspector (Bay 1, No. =285=); grey granite =portrait figure= of an official of Athribis (Bay 2, No. =288=); granite figure of =Nefer-ȧri=, from Bubastis (Bay 2, No. =289=); stele of =Pai-neḥsi=, the store keeper of the gold which came from the Sûdân (Bay 7, No. =299=); stele of =Ȧntef-Ȧqer-ānkh-khu= (Bay 7, No. =301=); stele of Queen =Mer-seḳer= (Bay 9, No. =330=).

The =Hyksos=.—Comparatively soon after the downfall of the XIIIth dynasty, the Delta and northern parts of Egypt were little by little occupied by a confederation of Semitic nomad tribes to whose leaders, on the authority of =Flavius Josephus=, the historian (who died about A.D. 100), the name of =Hyksos= or =Shepherd Kings= has been given. The word Hyksos is derived from two Egyptian words _Ḥequ-Shasu_ 𓋾𓈎𓀀𓏪𓆷𓄿𓇓𓅱𓼖𓏪, _i.e._, the Shêkhs or Governors of the Shasu,[34] or nomadic tribes of the Eastern Desert, Syria, etc. It is extremely unlikely that they fought for the possession of Egypt; and we may assume that they migrated into the Delta, and that, after a few generations, they found that their power and numbers were sufficiently great to enable them to assume the mastery of the whole country of Lower Egypt. The Hyksos, who had settled in the Delta, adopted, little by little, the manners and customs of the Egyptians; and at length their chiefs adopted the Egyptian language and religion, and assumed the titles of the old Pharaohs, and became to all intents and purposes Egyptian kings. They apparently worshipped several gods, the chief of whom was =Sutekh= 𓇓𓏲𓐱𓏏𓐰𓐍𓀭, and him they identified with =Set= 𓋴𓏏𓐰𓈜𓃩, or =Suti= 𓇓𓅱𓏏𓐰𓏭𓃩, the old Egyptian god of darkness and evil.

[Illustration: Granite lion inscribed with the name of Khian, a Hyksos king, about B.C. 1800.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 5, No. 340.]]

According to Josephus the chief kings of the Hyksos were: =Salatis=, who reigned at Memphis, and fortified the city of =Avaris=, near Tanis, and garrisoned it with 250,000 men; he reigned 13 years. He was succeeded by =Beon=, who reigned 44 years, and =Apachnas=, who reigned 36 years and 7 months, and =Apophis=, who reigned 61 years, and =Jonias= who reigned 50 years and 1 month, and =Assis=, who reigned 49 years and 2 months. Of the objects in the British Museum which belong to the =Hyksos Period= may be mentioned: =1.= The famous =Mathematical Papyrus= (No. 10,058), which was written in the reign of =Āa-user-Rā= 𓍹𓐼𓇳𓉻𓐰𓂝𓄊𓋴𓐽𓍺, or =Ȧpepȧ I=; =2.= A red granite slab from the temple of Bubastis, inscribed with the name of =Ȧpepȧ= 𓍹𓐼𓇋𓀁𓊪𓐰𓊪𓇋𓐽𓍺 (Bay 23, No. =339=); =3.= A scarab inscribed =Āa-peḥ=, the prenomen of =Nubti=, a king whose cartouches appear on the famous =Stele of 400 years=[35] (No. 32,368); =4.= The =granite= lion (Bay 5, No. =340=) on the breast of which is cut the cartouche 𓊹𓄤𓍹𓐼𓇳𓋴𓮆𓈖𓐽𓍺 _Suser-en-Rā_, _i.e._, the prenomen of King =Khian= 𓍹𓐼𓐍𓇌𓄿𓈖𓐽𓍺. This lion was purchased at Baghdad, but its _provenance_ is unknown. Besides these the British Museum possesses a large number of =scarabs of the Hyksos Period= inscribed with the names of kings and royal personages.

Another Hyksos king, =Āa-qenen-Rā Ȧpepȧ II=, is made known to us by Sallier Papyrus II (No. 10,185), which shows that he was a contemporary of one of the Theban kings called =Seqenen-Rā=. According to this document there was enmity between Ȧpepȧ II and Seqenen-Rā, his vassal, but as the papyrus is mutilated the result of their enmity is unknown.

During one portion of the Hyksos Period a group of petty kings, or chiefs, each of whom was called =Ȧntef-āa=, ruled either at Thebes or Coptos, and a few of their monuments have come down to us. In the British Museum are: =1.= Stone memorial =pyramid of Ȧntef-āa Ȧp-Maāt= (Vestibule, South wall, No. =341=); =2.= Slab sculptured with a figure of =Ȧntef Nub-kheper-Rā= (Bay 4, No. =342=); =3.= Gilded =coffin of Ȧntef-āa= (Wall-case 2, First Egyptian Room).

It has been said above that there was enmity between Ȧpepȧ II and Seqenen-Rā, but the monuments prove that there were three kings who bore the =Seqenen-Rā= prenomen, and it seems that all three waged war against the Hyksos in the north; their full names were =Seqenen-Rā= (=I=), =Tau-āa=, =Seqenen-Rā= (=II=), =Tau-āa-āa=, =Seqenen-Rā= (=III=), =Tau-āa-qen=. The greatest warrior of the three was undoubtedly the last named, and it was he who determined to throw off the yoke of the foreigner. He was supported by all classes of Egyptians, for the Hyksos were hated, and especially by the priests of Ȧmen-Rā at Thebes, who regarded the demand of the Hyksos king that Seqenen-Rā III should worship the god Sutekh as a grave insult to their god Ȧmen-Rā. Seqenen-Rā III refused to worship Sutekh, and proclaimed his independence. Of the battles which were fought during the war that followed nothing is known, but it is clear that in one of them the brave leader in the struggle for national independence was slain. When his mummy was unrolled at Cairo, in 1886, it was seen that the lower jaw-bone was broken and the skull split; there were also large wounds in the side of the head and over the eye, and one ear had been hacked away. Tau-āa-qen was succeeded by his son (?) =Ka-mes=, whose reign was, however, short. To him belonged the fine =bronze axe-head= inscribed with his names and titles exhibited in Table-case B in the Third Egyptian Room (No. 5), and the =spear head=, similarly inscribed, of which see a cast in the same case (No. 191). Ka-mes had several children by his wife Ȧāḥ-ḥetep, and some of their sons may have ruled for a short time; but the country was very unsettled, and the first to succeed in restoring law and order was =Ȧāḥmes=, or =Amāsis I=, the founder of the XVIIIth dynasty.