CHAPTER IV.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. MARRIAGE. POLYGAMY. HONOUR PAID TO THE MOTHER. THE CHILD AND ITS NAME. TOYS. EDUCATION. DRESS. FOOD. AMUSEMENTS. DWELLING HOUSES AND FURNITURE. AGRICULTURE AND CATTLE BREEDING. TRADE. HANDICRAFTS.

=Manners and Customs.=—The views of the Egyptians about =marriage= closely resemble those held by many African tribes, for they married their sisters and nieces, and sometimes indulged in =polygamy=. It is probable that the views as to marriage which obtained generally in Egypt were less rigid than those of Western nations. According to an ancient legend Osiris married his sister Isis, who became by him the mother of Horus, and he was also the father of Anubis by his other sister Nephthys. Generally speaking, the Egyptian was the husband of one wife, who was the mistress of his house and the mother of his children, whether she was his sister, or his niece, or a stranger. Kings and noblemen married several wives, and became fathers of children by many of the women of their households. The Ptolemies, curiously enough, seeing that they were Greeks, married their sisters and nieces, like the Egyptians. Marriage in Egypt was, no doubt, arranged in the way common to the East, _i.e._, it was practically a business transaction, great care being taken to provide for the maintenance of the woman in the event of misbehaviour either on her part or that of her husband. Whether any religious ceremony was performed at the marriage is unknown. Girls were married before they were fourteen years of age. The legitimate wife of a man is called “Nebt pa,” 𓎟𓐰𓏏𓉐𓐰𓏤, _i.e._, “lady of the house,”[18] and she might of course, be “his beloved sister”; frequently, however, the latter title is a euphemism for “mistress,” or “concubine.” To divorce or eject the “lady of the house” was a very difficult matter, and it was probably the fear of possible pecuniary complications which caused the Egyptian in so many cases to marry his sister or the woman whom he called by that name. Moreover, it was thus easier to keep the property in the husband’s family.

The legal =wife= was one of the freest women in the world. She went about the house, and outside it, at will, and, unlike the modern Egyptian women, she wore no =veil=. If she pleased, she held converse with men in the village or market, and she suffered from none of the restrictions which are placed upon women in the East in modern times. When the wife became a =mother= her power and influence were greatly increased, and the literature of ancient Egypt contains many passages which illustrate the honour and esteem in which the “mistress of the house” was held by her children, and on scores of stelae in the Egyptian Galleries the name of the mother of the deceased is given, whilst that of his father is not mentioned. The Egyptians, like many African tribes, traced their descent through their mothers, and the views which they held concerning the affection due to the wife from her husband, and the love which a son should give to his mother, are well illustrated by two passages. In the =Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep= (B.C. 3200): “If thou wouldst be a wise man, rule thy house and love thy wife wholly and constantly. Feed her and clothe her, love her tenderly, and fulfil her desires as long as thou livest, for she is an estate which conferreth great reward upon her lord. Be not hard to her, for she will be more easily moved by persuasion than by force. Observe what she wisheth, and that on which her mind runneth; thereby shalt thou make her to stay in thy house. If thou resistest her will it is ruin.” In the =Precepts of Khensu-ḥetep= (B.C. 1500) we read: “When thou art grown up, and art married, and hast a house, never forget the pains which thou didst cost thy mother, nor the care which she bestowed upon thee. Never give her cause to complain of thee, lest she lift up her hands to God in heaven, and He hearken to her cry [and punish thee].”

The life of the woman in the lower classes was a hard one. She cooked the food for her husband and children, she wove the flax into linen, attended to all matters in the house, and usually managed to have a large family. She was a mother at the age of fifteen, or earlier, and a grandmother at thirty, by which time her body was bent, her forehead wrinkled, and her face withered. Among the upper classes the process of physical deterioration was, of course, slower, but the results were the same.

Soon after a child was born a =name= was given to it, which usually had reference to some physical characteristic; thus a boy might be called “Nekht” 𓈖𓐰𓆱𓐰𓐍𓐱𓏏𓂡 “Strong,” and a girl “Nefert” 𓄤𓏏 “Beautiful,” or “Netchemet” 𓇛𓏏 “Sweet.” Pious folk introduced the name of some god or goddess into the child’s name, _e.g._, “Rā-ḥetep” 𓂋𓐰𓂝𓐰𓇳𓐱𓏤𓊵𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊪𓀀 “Rā is satisfied,” and loyal folk the name of the reigning king, _e.g._, “Pepi-nekht” 𓊪𓐰𓊪𓇌𓈖𓐰𓆱𓐰𓐍𓐱𓏏𓂡 “Pepi the strong one.” Several members of a family often bore the same name, but in these cases each was distinguished by some “little name” (_i.e._, pet-name). As a pet-name may be mentioned “Mȧi-sherȧui,” _i.e._, “Little Cat,” or “Pussy,” 𓏇𓇌𓈚𓐰𓂋𓇋𓏲𓐱𓏭𓐰𓅪𓁐. In well-to-do families a special day was set apart for naming a child and this =name-day= was usually celebrated with rejoicings.

For the first three years of its life a child was wholly in its mother’s care, and she carried it about on her back or left shoulder (see the ivory figure No. 41 in Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room). For the next three or four years of its life it went about naked, whether boy or girl, gentle or simple; indeed a grandson of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid, went to school unclothed. The heads of children were clean-shaven, with the exception of a lock of hair on the right side of the head. Little girls sometimes wore an amulet on their breast or body in order to avert the “evil eye,” and perhaps a cheap bracelet or necklace. They played with =dolls=, numerous examples of which have come down to us (see Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room). Like all children, Egyptian children loved =toys= of all kinds. As examples of these may be mentioned the =cat= with a movable lower jaw, the =elephant= and his rider, each having movable limbs, the =negro= being pursued by an animal, the =ape= drawing a chariot, the =cat-headed dwarf=, the =lion= killing its prey, the toy dog, hippopotamus, etc. The =balls= they played with were made of porcelain, papyrus, leather stuffed with chopped straw, etc. (See Standard-case C.)

=Education.=—It is doubtful if the children of peasants and of the lowest classes went to school, or received any education at all; both boys and girls were probably sent to herd the geese, to drive the sheep and goats to pasture or to the canal or river to drink, to look after the cows, to collect fuel for the fire, etc. It is unlikely that girls or women generally were taught to read and to write, but little is known about this matter. The boys of the professional and upper classes undoubtedly received a certain amount of instruction, for learning was highly esteemed throughout Egypt; but speaking generally, the learning of the country was in the hands of the =scribes=. The profession of the scribe was one of great dignity and importance, and the highest offices in the land were open to him. The temples and certain offices of the Government maintained schools in which scribes were trained, and pupils were, of course, promoted according to their proficiency and ability. In the temple-schools boys were trained to copy religious texts both in the hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, and they studied religious literature, exegesis, the legends of the gods, funerary texts, etc. In the schools of the Government Departments the teaching was devised to suit the requirements of the Treasury, the Public Granaries, the Crown Lands’ Department, etc., and the pupils studied arithmetic, the keeping of accounts, geometry, mensuration, the writing of reports, etc. In all schools boys were taught to be clean, diligent, obedient, respectful and well-behaved. Lessons began early in the morning and lasted till noon, when, as a papyrus in the British Museum says: “the pupils left the school with cries of joy.” The daily allowance of food for a boy was three bread-cakes and two jugs of beer, which were brought to the school-house by his mother every day. Corporal punishment was administered freely, and the back of the lazy boy who would not get up early, and that of the inattentive boy, received many stripes; in one case a very bad boy was locked up for three whole months in a strong room in one of the temples.

=School exercises= were written on small whitewashed boards, slices of white limestone, and papyrus with a reed, and they usually consisted of extracts from ancient texts, religious or poetical, the contents of which were intended to improve the mind and form the morals and manners of the reader and copyist. (See Standard-case C in the Third Egyptian Room.) The education given in the =colleges of the Priests= was of a different character. There the young men studied magical and religious texts, several Books of the Dead, the doctrines of the cosmogony, and the histories and legends of the gods. They read the ancient writings with the priests whose duty it was to instruct them, and learned by heart their expositions of the traditions accepted in the temples. One would expect the colleges to have possessed glossaries, or dictionaries, and grammars, but it is doubtful if they did, for nothing of the kind has hitherto been discovered. =History= in the modern sense of the word was unknown, though some of the great kings caused =Annals= of their reigns to be written; and recent excavations have shown that even the =King Lists= which were drawn up under the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties are incomplete, and that they contain the names of some kings wrongly spelt. =Astronomy= was studied with some success by the priests, and the maps of stars which were compiled by them were undoubtedly used for practical purposes in connexion with the agriculture of the country.

[Illustration: Head of a seated figure of a priestess wearing a full-plaited wig, bandlet, etc.

XVIIIth dynasty.

[Wall-case 103, Third Egyptian Room.]]

[Illustration: PLATE IX.

Painted relief with scenes representing dancing, the slaughter of cattle, preparations for a feast, etc. From the tomb of Ur-ȧri-en-Ptaḥ.

VIth dynasty.

[Assyrian Basement, No. 80.]]

[Illustration: PLATE X.

Painted sepulchral tablet of Kaḥu, a scribe of a storehouse of Ȧmen.

XVIIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 514.]]

=Dress and ornaments.=—The garments worn by the Egyptians were made of =linen=, for wool was regarded as unclean. The earliest masculine garment was the =loin-cloth=, the primitive form of which was preserved for ceremonial purposes until a late period. Above it a =girdle=, or belt, was usually added, and to this a =tail=, either that of some animal, or an imitation made of leather, was fastened. The tail is worn by many African peoples to this day. As time went on and fashion changed the loin-cloth developed into a sort of skirt, which varied in length, fulness, and folds, or a short kilt projecting in a peak just above the knees. Later both men and women wore a sort of =shirt=, and over this a loose flowing garment which reached from the neck to the feet. The linen worn by women of the upper classes was of very fine texture, and in the luxurious period of the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties their apparel was often very voluminous. The dress of men and women under the VIth dynasty is well illustrated by the scenes from a maṣṭaba tomb (see the Assyrian Saloon) reproduced on =Plate IX=, and under the XVIIIth dynasty by the figures on the stele of Kaḥu (Bay 12, No. 514) (=Plate X=). Both men and women wore =wigs=, which were sometimes very full and heavy, but women plaited their natural hair. =Sandals= were made of papyrus and palm-fibre, neatly woven or plaited, and sometimes of goat skin, or gazelle skin, well tanned and stained a pink colour. (See Table-case A in the Third Egyptian Room and Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The “=cone=” was worn on the head by men and women, sometimes with a lotus flower or lily attached to it. According to some it contained a ball saturated with oil or pomade of some kind, which ran slowly into the hair, and so spread over the head and shoulders, causing pleasing sensations to him on whose head the ball was. The =headdresses= of the king and queen were very elaborate, whilst those of ordinary folk consisted of a bandlet, more or less decorated. Men of position always carried a staff or =walking stick= as a sign of authority, and those whom the king had honoured by the gift of a =gold collar= wore it on every important occasion. Both men and women wore rings, anklets, bracelets, armlets, necklaces, elaborately ornamented collars, pectorals, pendants, amulets, and earrings, just as they do in Egypt and the Sûdân at the present time. Egyptian women stained the nails of their fingers and toes a yellowish red with the juice of the =ḥenna= plant; they painted their faces with a sort of =rouge=, and their eyelids and eyebrows with a preparation of antimony (stibium, or =koḥl=), and they added under the eyes thick lines of paint to make them appear large and full. Both men and women sometimes decorated their bodies with =tattoo= markings, which originally probably had a religious, or tribal, import. The burning winds and heat made the use of unguents an absolute necessity, and =oils= and =pomades= were very largely used in all periods. Strong scented woods and herbs were pounded and mixed with oil, and rubbed into the body, and =scents= were in ancient days, as now, in great demand. Often women carried a =fan= and a =mirror=. A fine collection of mirrors is exhibited in Wall-cases Nos. 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room.

=Food.=—The food of the lower classes consisted chiefly of =bread= and =vegetables=. The bread was made of a kind of millet, like the modern =dhurra=, =barley=, and rarely of =wheat=. The grains were rolled and crushed on a stone and then both the flour and the =bran= were mixed with water into a stiff paste; from this pieces were broken off and flattened out by the hand into cakes of various degrees of thickness, which were baked on hot stones, or in mud-lined ovens. (See the examples in Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room.) Bread-cakes were made in a variety of shapes, _e.g._, 𓏏, 𓏙, 𓏐, 𔏆, 𓊔, 𔏇, [glyph not in Unicode], 𓏖, 𓏑, etc. Among vegetables may be mentioned =onions=, =cucumbers= of various kinds, =beans=, =peas=, =lentils=, =radishes=, =pumpkins=, =water-melons=, =leeks=, =garlic=, =roots= of the turnip and carrot class, and vegetables belonging to the class of the modern _bâmia_, _bâdingân_ (egg-plant), _melûkhîyah_ (=spinach=), etc. All these grew in great abundance, and, in growing, needed little attention, and formed very important items in the food of all classes. (Compare Numbers xi, 4, 5: “And the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat? We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.”) =Milk= was drunk in large quantities by the living and was offered to the dead, and =cheese= was everywhere a common article of food. Among fruits may be mentioned =figs=, =dates=, =mulberries=, =grapes=, and probably =pomegranates=. From both figs and dates =syrups= and =sweetmeats= must have been made. =Fish= was largely eaten by the poorer classes, but from various passages in the texts we learn that the “eaters of fish” were unclean ceremonially. The =animal food= eaten consisted of the flesh of the sheep, goat, ox, gazelle, ariel, the antelope and other animals of that class, etc.; domestic animals intended for human food were often =fattened artificially=. Groups of swine are represented on the monuments occasionally, but the =pig= must have been regarded as an unclean animal. Among the birds eaten were the =goose=, =duck=, =pigeon=, =dove=, and the several kinds of birds which were found in the marshes all over Egypt in ancient days. =Geese= also were =fattened artificially=, and the trade in them must have been very large. (See the wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian Room, where the inspection and counting of geese are represented.) =Salt= was obtained from the lakes on the sea-coast, and =rock-salt= from several places in the Western Desert. With cooked meats, stews, etc., various kinds of seeds of the =spice= class were probably eaten, as modern nations eat mustard and pepper.

The =common drink= of the country was =beer=, _ḥeqt_ 𓎛𓈎𓐱𓏏𓐰𓏊, made from barley, and probably flavoured with plants of various kinds which took the place of hops; in the earliest Liturgy of Funerary Offerings mention is made of three or four kinds of beer. A =sweet beer= was made from =honey=. =Wine= made from grapes was drunk by the upper classes, and the lower classes drank =date wine=. This was, and still is, made by pouring water on ripe, fleshy dates, and letting it stand for a number of days, according to the strength of the wine required; after standing for a week or so the liquor becomes an exceedingly strong intoxicant.

=Mode of eating.=—The peasant sat, or squatted, on the ground and dipped his bread-cake into the mess of lentils or boiled vegetables which was in a bowl resting either on the ground or on a poor wooden stand. Well-to-do folk either sat on low stools, or lay on reed mats or cushions, and dipped their hands into the various bowls of boiled grain, meat, and vegetables which were placed on the small low stand that served as a table, round which they were grouped. Water was drunk from earthenware vessels, which were probably like the modern _ḳula_, or water-bottle, and wine and beer from bowls. The joint was roughly cut or broken into small pieces, probably before it was brought into the eating-chamber, but birds were pulled to pieces by the head of the house and his family or guests as they sat at meat. Fingers were wiped on the thin, flat bread-cakes, but after the meal a member of the household brought a jug and basin and poured water over the hands of those who had eaten. The chief meal of the day was eaten about the time of sunset. The Egyptians were careful to inculcate moderation in eating and drinking. Kaqemna, the sage, said: “If thou art sitting in company hate the food which thou likest; restrain thy appetite, for greediness savoureth of the beasts. Since one cup of water will quench the thirst, and a mouthful of vegetables stablish the heart, and one kind of good food is as satisfying as another, and a small quantity [of food] is as good as a large quantity, the man who permitteth his appetite to guide him is an abomination.” On the other hand, the guest must take what his host gives him, and must eat it, for to leave it uneaten is indeed an unmannerly act. And Ptaḥ-ḥetep said: “When thou art seated among the guests of a great man, accept what he giveth thee gracefully. Look before thee, nor stare [at the food], nor look at it often; he who departeth from this rule is a boorish fellow. And speak not to the great man more than is necessary, for one knoweth not what word will displease him. Speak when he speaketh, and thy word shall give pleasure.”

[Illustration: Relief with a hippopotamus. From the temple of Neb-ḥap-Rā Menthu-ḥetep.

XIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 3, No. 110.]]

=Amusements.=—The children of the poor were employed as soon as possible in tending the animals in the field, and they had few toys to play with; the children of well-to-do folk had painted wooden dolls, with hair made of strings of mud or porcelain beads, and movable joints, models of animals, etc. The chief amusement of men was =hunting=, and =fishing=, and =fowling=. Fish and water-fowl were usually caught in nets, but as bronze =fish hooks= have been found (see Table-cases B and J in the Third Egyptian Room) the rod and line must also have been used. The Egyptian sportsman set out on the marshes in a shallow boat with low bows and stern, taking with him his short =fishing spears=, =harpoons=, =boomerangs= (see Table-case E in the Third Egyptian Room), nets, his =hunting-cat= (see the wall-painting in Case I in the Third Egyptian Room), servants, and sometimes a favourite wife or daughter. Nets were cast for fish in certain parts of the marshes, and the boat was poled in among the high reeds and bulrushes where the birds congregated. The skilled boomerang thrower soon brought down many birds, and his efforts were ably seconded by his hunting-cat. Among the birds may be mentioned the =vulture=, =eagle=, =hawk=, =falcon=, =buzzard=, =kite=, =crow=, =lark=, =linnet=, =sparrow=, =quail=, =pelican=, =ibis=, =swallow=, =heron=, =goose=, =pigeon=, etc. Occasionally the =hippopotamus= was attacked among the dense papyrus growths, and the animal was usually harpooned to death, as was the custom in the Sûdân until recently, for the sake of the flesh. The =crocodile= was also sometimes caught. No hippopotamus has been seen living in Egypt in a natural state for very many generations, and the crocodile retreated south of Kharṭûm soon after paddle steamers were placed on the Nile. The crocodile was considered to be a sacred animal for thousands of years, and a sacred crocodile was kept and worshipped as the God of the Nile at Kharṭûm so recently as the year 1829. The numerous ivory objects found in Predynastic graves prove that the primitive Egyptians hunted and killed the =elephant= (see Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room), and it seems as if a considerable amount of ivory passed into Egypt proper by way of the First Cataract, for the ancient Egyptian name of the old frontier city was Ābu 𓍋𓃀𓅱𓃰𓅱𓄣𓐰𓈉, _i.e._, “Elephant City” (hence “Elephantine”). At a very early period, however, the elephant must have retreated far to the south, for he plays no part in Egyptian mythology, and figures of the animal are rare. (See the carnelian elephant in Table-case F, in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The =bear= also seems to have been hunted. (See page 86.)

The deserts on each side of the Nile were hunted in all periods, and if we may trust the paintings in the tombs excellent sport was always to be had. The animals most commonly hunted were the =lion=, =lynx=, =leopard=, =panther=, =wolf=, =jackal=, =wild-dog=, =fox=, =hyaena=, =hare=, =gazelle=, =oryx=, =ibex=, =ariel=, and many other animals of that class. In primitive times the Egyptians caught many animals with the =lasso= (see the green slate shield exhibited in Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room). The rope was thrown over the horns, or round the legs, of the animal, which was then easily pulled down. The weapons used in =hunting= were =clubs=, =bows=, =flint-tipped arrows=, boomerangs, and doubled-headed axes, all of which are shown in the illustrations on page 23. The indigenous ancestors of the dynastic Egyptians probably hunted the =elephant=, =rhinoceros=, and =giraffe=, but it is unlikely that many of these creatures remained in Egypt in the Historical Period. =Dogs= were employed largely in hunting, and several species are known. The most useful and valuable was the large dog, something like the greyhound, with prick ears and a long curling tail, of the same species which is used in Mesopotamia and Persia and the Sûdân at the present day, and is called _Salûḳî_. The boldness of this kind of dog, called in Egyptian _thesem_ 𓍿𓐰𓊃𓅓𓃡, is marvellous, for he will attack panthers and lions, and his fleetness is almost incredible. His speed is compared with that of a flash of light in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XXIV). The kings of the XVIIIth dynasty were great hunters, and Ȧmen-ḥetep III, who hunted from the Euphrates in the North to the Blue Nile in the South, states on his scarabs that he killed with his own hand 110 fierce lions during the first ten years of his reign. (See Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 925-929.)

[Illustration: Green schist bear.

Archaïc Period.

[No. 10, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.]]

Next to hunting =dancing= was perhaps the most favourite amusement of the Egyptians, and from Pyramid times the Egyptians delighted in watching men and women perform. The dances were accompanied sometimes by youths who played a =reed pipe= or =flute=, single or double, or twanged the strings of an instrument of the =harp=, 𓏢, or =lute= class. (See the fine examples in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The kings of the Ancient Empire loved a dance called the “dance of the god” which was danced by the =Pygmies= in Central Africa; and two of them, Ȧssȧ and Pepi, caused a Pygmy to be brought from his remote country to Memphis to dance before them. =Dancing women= danced and sang to the accompaniment of the =tambourine=, which was also used, together with the =sistrum= 𓏣, =cymbals=, and =bells=, in musical services in the temples. The =drum=, both the large drum which was beaten with tabs of leather, and the small =hand drum=, was a very favourite instrument of music, and was largely used in festivities by every class. =Tumblers=, =acrobats=, and =buffoons= afforded amusement to the spectators, and the drawings found on the walls of some of the tombs at Beni Hasan (B.C. 2300) show that many of the tricks exhibited at the present day were performed at that time. The well-to-do Egyptian hired dancers, singers, gymnasts, and musicians, and entertained his guests, both during and after feasts, with their performances.

The Egyptian loved to play =draughts= on earth, in Egyptian _sent_ 𓊃𓐰𓈖𓐰𓏏𓏠, and he earnestly hoped that he would do the same in heaven. (See Standard-case F in the Third Egyptian Room, where the scribe Ani and his wife are represented playing draughts in the Other World.) How the game was played is not known, but there must have been several kinds of games, for the =draughtboards= are not all arranged in the same way. (For examples of them see Standard-cases C and H in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The top of the box which held the =draughtsmen= formed the board on which the game was played. The Egyptians played a number of games with =counters=, but the methods are unknown. Numbers of =dice= have been found in the tombs, but it is doubtful if the die was known among the Egyptians of the Early Empire. Many of their games were, no doubt, games of chance. The modern equivalent of the draughts and counters of the ancient Egyptians is dominoes. The poor man, it seems from the texts, sometimes betook himself to “the house for swilling beer” 𓋴𓅨𓐰𓂋𓇋𓈗𓏊𓎛𓈎𓐰𓏏𓏊𓉐𓐰𓏤, where he got drunk, and babbled about his affairs, and fell about and hurt himself, and was then cast out of the door by his fellow drinkers who said: “out with this swiller,” 𓁷𓐰𓂋𓇋𓅱𓈐𓅮𓄿𓏭𓋴𓅨𓐰𓂋𓇋𓈗𓏊𓐰𓂡𓏪. When his friends came to seek him and upbraid him, they found him lying on the ground as helpless as a child (Maxims of Khensu-ḥetep, XIII). During the dark, moonless nights, after long weary days spent in hauling up water from the river, the peasant villager had little to amuse him, except games played with counters and draughts, and the converse of his companions in the “beer-house.”

[Illustration: Egyptian house, with inner chamber and two flights of steps leading to the roof.

About B.C. 4000.

[No. 292, Wall-case 107, Third Egyptian Room.]]

=Dwelling Houses.=—The king usually lived in a palace or large building within the precincts of some temple, or at a very little distance from one. His palace was probably like the large houses of modern times in Egypt, _i.e._, it had a courtyard with trees in the middle of it, and a large garden round about it. In the garden were fish-ponds and groves of fruit trees, palms, acacias, flowering shrubs with scented blossoms, and a limited number of flowers. There were arbours, too, covered with creepers and vines, and the gardeners watered the ground daily by means of small channels into which water was poured from the _shâdûf_, or the water wheel. The courtyards were paved, or tiled, or covered with floors made of inlaid painted porcelain work. The walls and ceilings of the rooms were painted with rich and intricate designs, and in a few of the rooms there were openings near the roof which served as windows. The royal furniture was probably richly painted and inlaid with ebony, ivory, porcelain, and, under the New Empire, metal vases of all shapes and sizes would be seen everywhere in the dwelling rooms. Certain large rooms were set apart for receptions and entertainments, and these probably contained large raised benches placed along the walls for the guests. The kitchen, pantry, stables, and general servants’ quarters were outside the house, but the personal attendants on the king and queen, the steward, the master of the chambers, etc., had their apartments in the palace. The storeys were rarely more than two in number, and the roof, which was flat, was approached by a flight of steps, either from the courtyard or from the roof of the storey on the ground floor.

The =houses of nobles= were built on the same lines as the palace, but with less magnificence, and they seldom consisted of more than two storeys. There was a courtyard, with sets of small rooms built on three sides of it, and a portico on the fourth. On the flat roof were wind shafts by which the north wind was brought into the rooms, and a small amount of light was also admitted into them through openings in the upper parts of the walls, close to the ceiling. Then as now, at certain seasons of the year, some of the members of the family slept on the roof or in the courtyard, the remainder on the upper floor. Near the house were the wine-press, beer-house, stable, byres for cattle, bins for various kinds of grain, etc., and chambers for storing the fruit and vegetables from the estate. The garden contained a small lake, and in the ground round about, which was divided into oblong beds, were fruit trees and flowering shrubs with scented blossoms, vines, etc. The whole was enclosed within a thick mud wall built probably of crude brick. The =farmhouse= of one storey usually contained one living-room, one bed-room, and a number of small chambers in which grain was stored. On the roof was a small chamber to which the master retired in the cool of the evening; this was approached by means of a flight of solid mud steps. The corn was ground and the bread baked in the courtyard, where also were kept the large porous earthenware jars, like the modern _zîr_, containing the =supply of water= which was brought to the house from the Nile each morning and evening. The house and yard were enclosed by a strong mud wall, with one door in it; in times of danger the cattle of the farm were driven from the fields into the yard. A good model of this kind of house is exhibited in Standard-case C, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Here are seen the master sitting in the chamber on the wall, or roof, with a plate of food before him, and the wife rolling the dough for the bread-cakes of the evening meal. The =house of the peasant= labourer was a mere hut made of mud, the roof of which was formed of layers of palm branches or straw. Small huts were made of reeds or palm trees bound together with twigs, and perhaps daubed with mud in the cold weather, and in the northern districts of mud; in the summer a shelter of reed mats probably sufficed.

[Illustration: Egyptian hut.

About B.C. 4000.

[No. 293, Wall-case 108, Third Egyptian Room.]]

=Furniture.=—The Egyptians did not fill their houses with furniture like Western Nations. Their =bedsteads= were made of wood, which usually came from the Sûdân, and consisted of a strong rectangular framework, about 15 or 20 inches high, across which was stretched plaited palm fibre, or rope; the _ankarîb_ of the Sûdân is the modern equivalent. The covering of such beds was formed of thick padded linen sheets, and the =pillow= was a support made of wood, or ivory, more or less ornamented, with a curved top for the neck to fit into. (See Wall-cases Nos. 97, 98, in the Third Egyptian Room.) =Carpets= were unknown, but plaited palm leaf or straw mats took their place. =Chairs= (see Standard-case H in the Fourth Egyptian Room) and =tables= were found in the houses of the wealthy, but only low =stools= were known in poor abodes. (For examples of a painted table, chairs inlaid with ivory and ebony, a couch-frame, stools, inlaid box, etc., see Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) Men, women, and children squatted or sat on the floor, or reclined upon mats, and in later days upon cushions made of padded linen. In houses of moderate size there was probably a raised mud bench, covered with mats in the receiving or eating room, for the use of the male members of the house, or their guests. There was also, probably, a raised mud bench built against the _outside_ of one of the walls of the house for the use of friends who sat there in the cool of the evening and for the men of the house to sleep on during hot nights. Niches, or square cavities cut in the walls, served as =cupboards=, and in one of these the =lamp= (see Wall-case No. 176 in the Fourth Egyptian Room), usually made of earthenware, stood.

[Illustration: Ivory head-rest, or pillow, of Ḳua-ṭep.

XIIth dynasty.

[No. 69, Wall-case 98, Third Egyptian Room.]]

The stores of clothing, etc., were kept in a very small room provided with a stout wooden door with a =bolt-lock= and =key= of simple pattern. (For examples of bolts and keys, see Wall-cases Nos. 180, 181, in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The mistress of the house usually possessed a small strong =box= in which she kept jewellery, ornaments, and amulets, and perhaps also her toilet requisites; in some cases the latter were kept in a special =toilet box=, which held =eye-paint= (stibium, or antimony, koḥl), =comb=, =hair-tweezers=, =pumice-stone=, =unguents= and =pomades=, both scented and plain. (See Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) =Kitchen utensils= were comparatively few in number. Fresh and sour milk (or curds), soft cheese, sheep-fat, etc., were kept in earthenware pots, some of which were undoubtedly glazed; bowls made of earthenware or gourds were common, as were large open saucers. The =cooking pots= were usually of earthenware, or, among well-to-do people, of metal. =Knives= made of flint, stone, or metal, were common, and rough flesh =forks=; in the later period =spoons= were used. =Plates=, in the modern sense of the word, were unknown; the thick bread-cake served as a plate for those who squatted round the bowl of cooked vegetables with pieces of meat on the top, and the thin flat cake was frequently used as a napkin. A stone =corn-grinder= and a =kneading-stone= were found in every house. The stock of grain for the family was kept in large earthenware jars, or in a kind of bin made of mud. Every house contained a =figure of the god= under whose protection the family lived, and to this adoration was offered at regular intervals; it took part in the family-councils, its lot was bound up with that of the family, and it prevented wandering spirits of evil disposition from entering the house. There being no =chimney= to the house, the =fire= was lit wherever it was most convenient, and the smoke went out through the roof and the aperture in the wall which served as a window. The =fuel= was animal dung, and such refuse from the straw as could not be eaten by the cow or goat of the house, and, occasionally, pieces of wood. As =matches= were unknown, care was taken to keep a small amount of fuel smouldering under the ashes, so that whenever it was necessary to boil lentils, etc., the fire could be revived; if the fire was out, recourse was had to the striking of =flints=, or to some neighbour, or to the temple fire. In primitive times the Egyptians seem to have used a =fire-stick=, like some of the tribes of Central Africa.

=Agriculture and Cattle-breeding.=—By far the larger part of the population of Egypt and the Egyptian Sûdân has been for many thousands of years past connected with the cultivation of the soil and the rearing of cattle, and on the success of the =farmer= and the =cattle-breeder= the prosperity of the whole country has always depended. In remote ages, before the estuary of the Nile was filled up by the mud which came down in flood-time from the mountains of Ethiopia and Nubia, and while still the sea flowed up the Nile as far as Esna, the primitive Egyptians were shepherds and herdsmen. The great cattle-breeding district was situated in the neighbourhood of the country now called Dâr Fûr, or the “Home of the Fûrs,” and even to the present day the exportation of the beautiful cattle of the district forms a very important item of Sûdân trade. The natives who lived by breeding cattle were called by the Egyptians “Menti,” _i.e._, “=cattle-men=,” and their modern descendants are called “Baḳḳârah,” which also means “cattle-men.” In all times they have been a wild and lawless folk, ferocious, blood-thirsty, and cruel. The early cattle-men worshipped the =bull=, and this animal played a prominent part in later Egyptian mythology. Several kinds of bulls were worshipped in Egypt: =Apis= at Memphis, =Mnevis= at Heliopolis, and =Bachis= at Hermonthis, and one of the greatest of the titles of Osiris was “Bull of Ȧmentet,” or “Bull of the Other World.” The =cow= also was worshipped under the name of Hathor, and a flint cow-head in the British Museum (Table-case M in the Third Egyptian Room) proves that her cult dates from the latter part of the Neolithic Period. The paintings on the walls of early tombs show that several kinds of cattle were known to the Egyptians, and the inscriptions make it clear that the old feudal lords and gentry of Egypt devoted much attention to cattle-breeding, and that they made a regular trade of it. (See the models of cows in the Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, No. 140, and the wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian Room.) =Oxen= and =cows= were fattened like the smaller animals and geese, and, before they were turned out for the season into the deserts to browse upon the growth which followed the rains, they were branded, or marked in some way with their owner’s name.

[Illustration: The bull Ḥāp (Apis), with the triangular blaze on his forehead, and the scarabs, etc., on his back.

[Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]]

[Illustration: The bull Mer-ur (Mnevis).

[Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]]

[Illustration: Flint Cow’s head.

[No. 86, Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]

The =camel= was certainly known in the Predynastic Period, for the head of an earthenware figure of one was found at Abydos a few years ago; but this animal cannot have been used for transport purposes, or bred by the early Dynastic Egyptians, for otherwise we should find pictures of him on the walls of the tombs. One of the earliest mentions of the camel is contained in the “Travels of an Egyptian” (Brit. Mus. Papyrus No. 10,247), where we find the Semitic word for camel under the form _kamāȧl_ 𓎡𓄿𓅖𓇋𓑰𓄿𓏭𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏤𓄛. The camel plays no part in Egyptian mythology. The commonest beast of burden was the =ass=, which was bred in large numbers, and was employed like oxen for treading out the corn and for riding. One of the desert caravans of Ḥer-Khuf, an old feudal lord of Elephantine under the VIth dynasty, contained 300 asses. The ass was admired for his strength, endurance, and virility, and he appears in Egyptian mythology as a form of the Sun-god. =Sheep= and =goats= were always bred in large numbers. The =horse= may have been known in Egypt in the XIIth dynasty, but he was not bred there until the experience gained by the Egyptians in their Asiatic campaigns showed them his value in military operations. Horses must have been plentiful in Egypt under the XXIInd dynasty, “for Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt,” and “a chariot came up and went out of Egypt, for six hundred _shekels_ of silver, and an horse for an hundred and fifty” (1 Kings x, 28, 29). Excellent representations of horses are seen in the wall-painting in Standard-case D in the Third Egyptian Room, and in the battle-scene of Rameses II on the South Wall of the Fourth Egyptian Room, above the cases.

The =pig= is not often represented on the monuments, but a painting in a tomb at Thebes shows that swine were used on farms for treading out the corn. From a very early period the god of evil, Set, was believed to have appeared in the form of a “black pig” 𓂋𓐰𓂋𓃟𓆎𓅓𓏜 when he smote the Eye of Horus (_i.e._, the Sun). The gods then decreed that pigs should be sacrificed to Horus, with bulls, sheep, and goats. In one form of the Judgment Scene the pig is the emblem of evil, and also in the Book of the Dead (see Chapters XXXVI and CXII). On the other hand, the =sow= was an animal sacred to Isis, and small figures of sows were worn as amulets attached to necklaces. (See the figures of sacred animals in Wall-case No. 121 in the Third Egyptian Room.) Under the early dynasties a species of =ram=, which became the symbol of the god Khnemu 𓁠, with flat horns projecting at right angles from the sides of his head 𓃝, was common in Nubia, but it appears to have died out before the end of the XIIth dynasty. Another kind of ram 𓩱 apparently indigenous to Nubia, became the symbol of the god Ȧmen of the Sûdân.

The principal instrument used in farming was the =plough= 𓍁, the share of which was made of a piece of wood tied to a long pole; at the other end of the pole was fixed a bar, which was made fast to the horns of the cows which drew the plough. This primitive instrument was little more than a stout stake tied to a pole which was drawn over the ground, and made a very shallow furrow. The stiff Nile mud was further broken up by the =hoe= 𓌸, of which examples may be seen in the Wall-case No. 102 in the Third Egyptian Room (No. 281, etc.). As soon as the fields were ready to receive the seed, the =sowing= took place, and when the seed had been cast into the furrows it was trodden in by the animals on the farm being driven over it. The sowing was done by hand, and no drill appears to have been used. The fields were watered either by allowing the water to flow from a large basin or reservoir on to them, or by machines which lifted the water from the canal to their level, or from the Nile itself. The commonest water-raising machine resembled the modern =shâdûf=, which was worked by one or two men. Two stout stakes were driven firmly into the ground at the edge of the stream, and between them was tied a long pole, heavily weighted with a mass of mud or stone at one end. To the end of the longer half of the pole a rope and a leather bucket were tied. The labourer drew the pole down until the bucket entered the stream, and the weight of the counterpoise at the other end helped him to raise the water to the surface of the field, where he poured it into the channel leading to the growing crop.

At the =harvest= the crops were cut with the small =sickle= 𓌳 (see Table-case K in Third Egyptian Room, Nos. 1-4), which in primitive times was made of flint or a series of flints set in a wooden frame [glyph not in Unicode], and in later times of iron or bronze. The wheat or barley was tied up into small bundles by the reapers, and carried to the =threshing floor=, where the grain was trodden out by animals—donkeys, swine, etc. The threshing floor, as we may see from the wall paintings and pictures on papyri, was circular in form, and its edges were raised, 𓻂, thus preventing the animals, as they ran round and round in it, from scattering the grain with their feet. The operations of ploughing, reaping, and =treading out the corn= are well illustrated by the Vignette No. 35, from the Ani Papyrus. (See Standard-case G in the Third Egyptian Room.) When the grain had been trodden out, it was thrown up by hand into heaps, the wind blowing away the chaff whilst it was in the air. It was next carried in baskets, or bags, to the store or granary, which was usually near the house. Here it was either piled up in heaps on mud stands with raised edges 𓊚, or poured into large bins built in the walls along a rectangular courtyard. (See the models of granaries in Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room.)

=Trade.=—The trade of Egypt appears to have been chiefly in the hands of the seafaring folk of the Delta, who probably worked the imports and exports of the country in connection with the Semitic merchants who traded in the seaports of Phoenicia and the Mediterranean generally. The chief =export= of Egypt was =corn=, which was carried all over the Mediterranean, and we know from Genesis xii, xli-xliii, that when grain was scarce in other countries, the merchants were in the habit of going to Egypt to supply their wants. At intervals, however, serious famines came upon Egypt (Genesis xli, 55, 56), and when corn could not be imported, the mortality among the people was very great. In the reign of Ptolemy III (B.C. 247) there was a famine in Egypt, and the King expended much gold in purchasing grain at a high price to save the lives of the people of Egypt, and he caused corn to be brought to Egypt from Eastern Syria, and Phoenicia, and Cyprus. Next in importance came the =linen= of Egypt, which, in the form of byssus, was famous throughout Western Asia. Under the XVIIIth dynasty considerable quantities of =gold= were exported from Egypt to Northern Syria, Assyria and Babylonia. The gold came from the Eastern Sûdân and Punt, where at that time (B.C. 1500) it was produced in such large quantities that Tushratta writing to Ȧmen-ḥetep III says: “Send me so much gold that it cannot be measured, more gold than that thou didst send to my father; for in my brother’s land (_i.e._, Egypt), gold is as common as dust”! (Tell al-Amarna tablet, No. 8.) According to Diodorus (ed. Didot, p. 41) Rameses II received from his gold and silver mines in one year metal to the value of 32,000,000 minas, or £80,000,000 sterling. Another article of export was paper manufactured from =papyrus=.

Among the =imports= may be mentioned =copper= and =tin= from Cyprus and Northern Syria, =cedar= wood from the Lebanon Mountains, =lapis-lazuli paste= from Babylonia, =myrrh= and =spices= for embalming, =skins=, =cattle=, =ebony=, =ostrich feathers=, =bows=, =pillows=, =chairs=, =couches=, =fans=, =mats=, =shields=, etc., from the Sûdân; and a number of the products of India and Arabia must have found their way into Egypt by means of the caravans which crossed the desert to some place near the modern Suez or Ḳanṭarah, and some sea-borne goods entered Egypt by the route from the Red Sea to the Nile, _viâ_ Ḳuṣêr and Ḳena. The importance of Egypt as a trading centre, and as the natural market half-way between the East and the West, was not fully recognized until the Ptolemaïc Period, about B.C. 250. Business was carried on chiefly by =barter=, so much wheat, barley, or millet being the value of a sheep, bull, cow, or goat, linen, etc. The Egyptians used =weights= and =measures=, _e.g._, the =royal cubit= of 7 palms or 28 fingers, the =little cubit= of 6 palms or 24 fingers, the =palm= of 4 fingers, the =hand= of 5 fingers, the =fist= of 6 fingers, and the =finger=; of =dry measure=, the =hen=, the =ṭenȧt=, the =ȧpt=, etc.; of =weight=, the =ṭeben= (= 3⅕ ounces), the =ḳeṭ= = ⅟₁₀th of a ṭeben, etc. The use of the =scales= was well known, but there is no evidence that the steelyard was employed before the Roman Period. =Stamped money= was unknown among the Egyptians, but they appear to have used a =currency= which consisted of pieces of wire made of copper, iron, or gold, and gold-dust. =Ring-money=, made of gold, is represented in the painting on the south wall of the Fourth Egyptian Room; and also the little bags containing gold dust. Ring-money in gold is in use at the present day along the east coast of Africa, and in certain parts of the Sûdân copper wire still possesses great purchasing powers.

[Illustration: Jewellers drilling and polishing beads, etc.

XVIIIth dynasty.

[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 518.]]

=Handicrafts.=—The Egyptian of all periods was a skilled =potter=. In the earliest times the potter’s wheel was unknown, and every vessel was shaped by the potter’s hand or foot. Vessels of all sorts, shapes, and sizes were made with great skill, and in later periods were decorated with linear and other designs. The art of the potter throve until the advent of the conquerors from Asia, when it began to languish; and in a few centuries earthenware vessels were superseded by stone. Good examples of Predynastic and Archaïc pottery will be found in the cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, and of the pottery of the later periods in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =Basket-weaver= wove rush matting, plaited mats and sandals, and made ropes and baskets of all kinds. Specimens of his work will be seen in Table-case A in the Third Egyptian Room, and in Wall-cases 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Owing to the abundance of flax in Egypt the trade of the =linen-weaver= was in all periods most flourishing, and the “fine linen of Egypt” was famous throughout Western Asia and the seaports of the Mediterranean. A staff of linen weavers appears to have been attached to each temple, and the sale of their work produced a large revenue; a portion was paid to the king, and the rest was kept by the priests. The city of Ȧpu (Panopolis, the modern Akhmîm) was one of the chief seats of the linen industry, and to this day the dyed curtains of Akhmîm are used throughout Egypt. The craft of the =jeweller= was very important, for, in addition to the rings, bracelets, necklaces, pendants, earrings, etc., which he made in gold and silver, he cut the =amulets= and ornaments in amethyst, garnet, agate, onyx, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, mother-of-emerald, lapis-lazuli, turquoise, rock-crystal, basalt, porphyry, haematite, obsidian, coral, mother-of-pearl, etc. (See Table-cases F, J.) The finest work of the jeweller belongs to the XIIth dynasty, and the workmen of that period brought the art of =inlaying precious stones= and metals to a very high pitch of perfection. Some think that the Egyptians understood the art of =enamelling=, but authorities are not agreed on this point.

The =glass-maker’s= craft is a very old one in Egypt, and it is probable that the Phoenicians borrowed it from that country. Fine specimens of it in the British Museum are the turquoise-blue opaque glass jar of Thothmes III (Table-case H, No. 50, Third Egyptian Room), a blue glass bowl, and a variegated glass bowl from the tomb of Ȧmen-ḥetep II (Nos. 57, 59, in the same case), and an opaque glass stibium pot with a gold rim (Wall-cases 182-187, No. 29). The =porcelain maker= produced the little figures, amulets, bowls, vases, ushabtiu-figures, tiles, beads, pendants, etc., in the beautiful blue, green, purple, violet, and brown glazed ware to which the name =Egyptian porcelain= is usually given. An exceedingly fine collection of objects in this material is exhibited in Wall-cases Nos. 151-156 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =leather worker= prepared parchments for writing materials, and made the harness for horses and trappings for chariots, soldiers’ belts (Table-case B, No. 193), sheaths for daggers (No. 37), nets of fine meshes (Wall-case No. 187, Fourth Egyptian Room), seats for chairs (No. 5 Standard-case L, same room), bags in which barbers carried their razors, etc. (Wall-case No. 184, Fourth Egyptian Room.) Examples of the tools of the =carpenter=, =blacksmith= and =coppersmith=, =stonemason=, =house-painter= and =decorator=, etc., will be found in Table-case K and Wall-case 103 in the Third Egyptian Room.

Of the =brickmaker’s= work specimens belonging to the reigns of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, Thothmes I, Thothmes III, and Rameses II are exhibited in Wall-case 175, Fourth Egyptian Room. Examples of the craft of the =furniture maker= in the form of tables, chairs, stools, couches, toilet boxes, altar-stands, etc., are seen in Standard-case L and Wall-case No. 190 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The work of the =ivory carver= went hand in hand with that of the carpenter as regards the inlaying of chair frames, jewel-boxes, etc. (see Nos. 13 and 16 in Standard-case L). Specimens of the highest form of his skill are seen in the chair-legs, human figures, spoons, etc., in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The =caster-in-metal= produced the splendid series of figures of the gods in Wall-cases 119-132 and Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room; fine examples are the =silver figure of Ȧmen-Rā= (No. 42), =gold figures= of Thoth, Ptaḥ and Rā, (Nos. 21, 25, 26), and the gold figure of Osiris (No. 34). The =wood-carver= made the models of men, boats, animals, etc., which were placed in the tombs (see Wall-case Nos. 192, 193, Fourth Egyptian Room), and =dolls= and =children’s toys= (see Standard-case C, Fourth Egyptian Room). The =dyer= produced the salmon-coloured linen coverings for mummies (see Case L, First Egyptian Room), the brown mummy-swathings (see Wall-cases 93-96, Third Egyptian Room), and coloured wearing apparel (see Table-case E, Third Egyptian Room), etc.

The =baker= and =confectioner= found constant employment in every town and village in Egypt, for the Egyptians loved cakes made with honey, and fruit of all kinds, and bread and buns made into fanciful shapes. A great business was done in bread and pastry which were intended to serve as funerary offerings. Specimens of the bread and the stands on which the flat loaves were placed, will be found in Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room. The terra-cotta =cones= 𓏙 which are exhibited in large numbers in Wall-cases 110, 111, are supposed by some to represent the loaves, of a pyramidal shape, seen in the hands of kings and others who are represented offering to the gods. The =barber= also found constant employment, for many had their whole heads and bodies shaved every two or three days. He also dressed the hair of ladies on ceremonial occasions, and made =wigs= (see the fine example in Wall-case H, Third Egyptian Room). The barber often united to his trade the profession of =physician=, just as was the case in Europe in the Middle Ages. The craft of the =boat-builder= was very important in a country where a river was the chief highway. Flat-bottomed boats and punts used in fishing in the canals, or fowling on the marshes, were made of bundles of reeds, or papyrus, tied together, like the modern _tôf_ in the Sûdân. Boats for carrying merchandize on the river were made of planks of wood pegged together, which were sometimes kept in position by being nailed on to ribs, and others were merely tied round with ropes made of papyrus. One of the earliest known pictures of an Egyptian boat is seen on vase No. 160, in Wall-case No. 5, on the landing of the North-West Staircase. Models of funeral boats, and barges and war boats are exhibited on the upper shelf of Wall-cases Nos. 99-110, in the Third Egyptian Room. The Egyptians were skilful boat builders, and they made rafts capable of carrying enormous blocks of stone, _e.g._, the obelisks which Queen Ḥātshepset set up at Karnak. They had equivalents of the modern broad ferry-boat, barge, lighter, etc., which they worked with oars or “sweeps” and sails, or towed, when going upstream, and when there was no wind.