CHAPTER VII.

EGYPTIAN RELIGION. EARLY BELIEF IN SPIRITS, FETISHES, COMPANIES OF GODS. THE WORD FOR GOD AND “GOD.” LIST OF GODS. POLYTHEISM. ONENESS OF GOD. LEGENDS OF THE GODS. OSIRIS AND THE RESURRECTION. THE JUDGMENT. THE OTHER WORLD. DOCTRINE OF RETRIBUTION. AMULETS.

=Predynastic Religion.=—From the evidence derived from a number of Predynastic graves it is perfectly clear that the Predynastic Egyptians believed in a future life; for otherwise they never would have buried with the dead food and flint weapons, etc., for the chase in the Other World. Whether they believed that the future life would be eternal cannot be said; but they certainly hoped that it would resemble the life on this earth.

=Dynastic.=—The religion of the ancient Egyptians was of African origin, and in the earliest times had much in common with that of many of the peoples and tribes who live in Equatorial Africa at the present day. Earth, air, sea and sky were believed to be filled with spirits, some of whom were occupied in carrying on the works of nature, and others in aiding or injuring man upon earth. Every object, both animate and inanimate, was inhabited by a spirit, which could assume any form it pleased, and occupy the body of any man, woman, quadruped, bird, fish, insect, reptile, tree, etc. The incarnations of certain of these spirits became gods at a very early period, _e.g._, the hippopotamus,[19] crocodile, lion, bull, ram, dog-headed ape, dog, wolf, jackal, ichneumon, hawk, vulture, ibis, swallow, dove, and heron, certain kinds of snakes, uraeus, frog, beetle, grasshopper, mantis, and several kinds of fish. All the above were regarded as powers of good from the earliest to the latest times. On the other hand, certain animals, _e.g._, gazelle, the animal which is the symbol of Set, 𓃩, or 𓃫, the hyaena, the lynx, the scorpion, the turtle, were incarnations of powers of evil. The heavenly bodies were regarded as powers of good, probably, in the earliest times; but the scorching heat of the sun, lightning, hurricanes, storms, flood, darkness, mist and fog were regarded as manifestations of spirits hostile to man.

In addition, the primitive Egyptians fashioned symbols of spirits, much in the same way as the native of Central Africa makes “fetishes.”[20] All these they worshipped because they admired some quality or attribute in them, or because they feared them; and the religion of the earliest period consisted of the performance of rites and ceremonies which had for their object the propitiation of them. Men gave gifts to the incarnations of the spirits to persuade them to withhold the evils which they might inflict upon them, and to protect them from every calamity; moreover, they appealed to them as possessing the same feelings and passions as human beings. The dead were assumed to enjoy a renewed existence in the Other World, probably with benevolent spirits; it is quite certain that this belief was current among the primitive Egyptians, at least among those who lived during the latter half of the Neolithic Period. Every district and every large city or town had its own spirit or object of worship, and most of the gods of Egypt of the Dynastic Period were selected from them; often, no doubt, their names were changed, and their attributes added to.

At a very early period an attempt was made to group the gods into families containing husband, wife, and son; these are usually called =triads=, examples of which are: Ȧmen-Rā, Mut and Khensu at Thebes; Ba-neb-Ṭeṭ, Ḥāt-meḥit and Ḥeru-pa-kharṭ at Mendes; Ptaḥ, Sekhet and I-em-ḥetep at Memphis. Another attempt to group the gods resulted in the =Ennead= or =Company= of nine or more gods.

[Illustration: Ȧmen-Rā. Ȧmsu or Menu. Ȧmset. Anubis. Ȧsȧr (Osiris). Ȧsȧr (Osiris).

Ȧsȧr-Ḥāp (Serapis). Ȧtmu. Bennu. Bes. Ḥāpi (Nile-god).

Ḥāpi. Horus. Ḥeru-pa-kharṭ (Harpokrates). Kheperȧ. Khnemu. Khensu.

Menthu-Rā. Nefer-Tem. Ptaḥ. Ptaḥ-Seker. Qebḥsennuf.

Rā-Ḥeru-Khu (Rā-Harmakhis). Reshpu. Reshpu. Seb (Ḳeb). Sebek.

Seker. Set. Ṭeṭ. Teḥuti (Thoth). Ṭuamutef.

Ȧnit. Ānthȧt. Ānqet. Ȧst (Isis). Ḥet-Ḥeru (Hathor).

Ḥet-Ḥeru (Hathor). Ḥet-Ḥeru (Hathor). Qeṭesh. Maāt. Menḥet.

Mert. Mut. Nebt-ḥet (Nephthys). Nebt-ḥet (Nephthys). Nekhebit.

Net (Neith). Nut. Renenet. Satet. Sesheta (Sefekh-ābui).

Sekhet. Serqet. Taurt (Thoueris). Uatchit. Urt-Ḥekau.]

At Heliopolis, the On of the Bible, the priests proclaimed the existence of three Companies of the gods. The first Company was called the “Great” 𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓉻𓐰𓏏, the second the “Little” 𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓅪𓐰𓏏, and the third had no special title; these Companies represented the gods of heaven, earth, and the Other World respectively. When all three companies were invoked they were represented thus: 𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹𓊹. The gods of the Great Company were: Temu, Shu, Tefnut, Seb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys; Khenti-Ȧmenti, Rā, Horus, and Uatchit were sometimes added. The gods of the Little Company were: Rā, Ȧm-Ȧnnu, Ȧm-Āntchet, Ȧm-Ḥet-Serqet, Ȧm-neter-ḥet, Ȧm-ḥetch-paār, Ȧm-Saḥ, Ȧm-Ṭep, Ȧm-Ḥet-ur-Rā, Ȧm-Unnu-resu, and Ȧm-Unnu-meḥt.

The common Egyptian word for God and god is NETER 𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐰𓂋, which is symbolized by the sign 𓊹; goddess is NETERT 𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐰𓂋𓏏𓐰𓆇; the plurals are NETERU 𓊹𓊹𓊹 or 𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐰𓂋𓅱𓀭𓏪 “gods,” and NETERIT 𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐰𓂋𓇌𓏏𓆗𓏪 “goddesses.” The original meaning of the word NETER is unknown, but in the Dynastic Period it probably meant “high, exalted, sublime, divine, godlike,” etc.

The following are some of the principal gods and goddesses, and the visitor will find an unrivalled series of figures of most of them in bronze, wood, stone, etc., exhibited in Wall-cases 119-132 in the Third Egyptian Room. Full descriptions will be found in the _Guide to the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms_, pp. 116-168:—

ȦSȦR, Osiris, 𓁹𓐰𓊨𓐱𓀭, the man-god who rose from the dead, was deified, and became the king of the Other World and judge of the Dead.

ȦST, Isis, 𓊨𓏏𓐰𓆇𓛖, the sister-wife of Osiris.

SET 𓋴𓏏𓐰𓈜𓁣, the principle of Evil, and opponent of Osiris.

NEBT-ḤET, Nephthys, 𓽠𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, the wife of Set.

ȦNPU, Anubis, 𓇋𓈖𓐰𓊪𓅱𓝱, the Dog-god, or Jackal-god, son of Set.

ȦP-UAT 𓄋𓐰𓊪𓐱𓏴𓈐𓐰𓏏𓐱𓏦, the Wolf-god, a friend and companion of Osiris.

ḤERU, Horus, 𓅃𓐴𓏤𓀭, existed in several forms, _e.g._, Horus the Elder (Arouëris), Horus the Blind, Horus the Child (Harpokrates), Horus, son of Osiris, Horus, son of Isis, etc.

NU 𓏍𓐰𓇯𓀭, god of the primeval watery mass out of which the world was made.

ḤĀPI 𓎛𓂝𓐰𓊪𓐱𓏭𓈘𓐰𓈗𓀭, the Nile-god.

KHEPERȦ 𓐍𓐰𓊪𓆣𓂋𓇋𓀭, the creator of the universe whose dwelling was Nu.

TEḤUTI, Thoth, 𓅝𓐰𓏏𓐱𓏭𓀭, who created the world and all things in it by a word.

KHNEMU 𓎸𓅓𓅱𓀭, who assisted in carrying out the work of creation.

PTAḤ 𓊪𓐰𓏏𓎛𓀭, who assisted Khnemu in the work of creation.

RĀ 𓂋𓐰𓂝𓇳𓐰𓏤𓀭, the Sun-god.

SEB (ḲEB) 𓅬𓃀, the Earth-god.

SHU 𓆄𓅱𓀭, the god of the air.

ḤET-ḤERU, Hathor, 𓉡, a sky-goddess, who existed in seven forms.

NUT 𓏌𓐱𓏏𓐰𓇯𓁐, a sky-goddess.

TEFNUT 𓏏𓐰𓆑𓐰𓏌𓐱𓏏𓁐, a rain-goddess.

NEKHEBIT 𓇑𓏌𓐰𓏏𓁐, the great goddess of the South.

UATCHIT 𓇅𓇌𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, the great goddess of the North.

NET, Neith, 𓋋𓐰𓏏𓐱𓆇𓁐, the self-created goddess of Saïs, who existed in four forms.

BAST 𓎰𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, the great goddess of Bubastis.

MENU, or ȦMSU 𓋉𓐰𓊾𓀭, god of virility and generation.

BES 𓃀𓋴𓁲, ⎫ ĀNQET 𓂝𓐰𓈖𓐰𓈎𓏏𓐰𓆇𓆗, ⎪ SATIT 𓄝𓐰𓏏𓐱𓏭𓆗, ⎪ gods of the Sûdân. ṬEṬUN 𓂧𓐰𓂧𓃹𓐰𓈖𓀭, ⎪ MERUL 𓌻𓅱𓏩𓃭, or MENRUIL 𓈘𓐰𓈖𓐰𓂋𓏲𓐰𓏭𓬖𓊹. ⎭

TEMU 𓏏𓐰𓍃𓅓𓅱, the Man-god, who always appears in human form.

ḤĀP 𓎛𓐑𓐰𓊪𓀭, ⎫ The divine sons of Horus, son of Osiris, MESTHȦ 𓐝𓐰𓊃𓍘𓇋𓀭, ⎪ who assisted their father in performing QEBḤSENNUF 𓏁𓌣𓏪𓆑𓀭, ⎪ the ceremonies connected with the ṬUAMUTEF 𓇼𓄿𓅐𓏏𓐰𓆑𓀭, ⎭ mummifying and burial of Osiris.

ȦMEN 𓇋𓏠𓐰𓈖𓀭, or ȦMEN-RĀ 𓇋𓏠𓐰𓈖𓂋𓐰𓂝𓐰𓇳𓐱𓏤𓀭, the great god of Thebes.

MUT 𓅐𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, the female counterpart of Ȧmen-Rā.

KHENSU 𓐍𓐰𓈖𓇓𓅱𓀭, the son of Ȧmen and Mut. Like Horus he had seven forms.

IUSĀASET 𓂻𓐰𓏲𓊃𓐰𓂝𓄿𓋴𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, a goddess of Heliopolis.

I-EM-ḤETEP (Imouthis) 𓇍𓅓𓊵𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊪𓀭, a deified physician of Memphis.

SEKER 𓊃𓐰𓎡𓐰𓂋𓀭, god of the dead of Memphis.

NEFER-TEM 𓄤𓆑𓐰𓂋𓏏𓐰𓍃𓅓𓀭, a god of Memphis. The lotus was his symbol.

MAĀT 𓌷𓐰𓂝𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁦, goddess of wisdom, right, truth, law, order, etc.

SESHETA 𓋇𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, goddess of literature.

MESKHENIT 𓄠𓋴𓐍𓐰𓈖𓏏𓐰𓈜𓁐, goddess of birth.

RENENIT 𓂋𓐰𓈖𓐰𓈖𓏏𓐰𓆇𓁐, goddess of fertility, the harvest, etc.

MEḤ-URIT 𓎖𓎛𓅨𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏, a very ancient sky-goddess.

SEKHET 𓋴𓐍𓐰𓏏𓌂𓁐, a fire-goddess, the female counterpart of Ptaḥ.

TA-TENEN 𓇾𓐰𓏤𓐱𓏏𓐱𓈇𓇑𓇑𓈖𓐰𓈖𓡞, a very ancient earth-god.

MENTHU 𓏠𓐰𓈖𓍿𓅱𓀭, an ancient war-god.

ȦTEN 𓇋𓏏𓐰𓈖𓐰𓇳, the god of the solar disk.

FOREIGN GODS AND GODDESSES.

ĀNTHȦT 𓂝𓐰𓈖𓍘𓇋𓏏𓐰𓆇𓆗, a goddess of Syrian origin.

ĀNTHRETHȦ 𓂝𓐰𓈖𓐰𓍿𓂋𓐰𓏤𓍘𓇋𓆗, goddess of the Kheta.

ĀSTHȦRETHIT 𓂝𓐰𓊃𓐰𓍿𓇋𓂋𓐰𓍿𓏏𓐰𓆇𓆗, =Ashtoreth=, a goddess of Syrian origin.

QEṬESH 𓊧𓂧𓐰𓈚𓆗, goddess of Syrian origin.

KENT 𓎡𓐰𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐱𓆇𓆗, a goddess of Syrian origin.

ĀASITH 𓉻𓐰𓂝𓐰𓏛𓋴𓏭𓍘𓆗, a goddess of the Eastern Desert.

BĀIRTHȦ 𓃀𓂝𓐰𓏭𓐰𓂋𓏤𓍘𓇋𓝱, _i.e._, Beltis, counterpart of Ba’al Sephôn.

BĀR 𓃀𓂝𓐰𓂋𓃩, _i.e._, “=Baal=,” a Syrian war-god.

RESHPU 𓂋𓐰𓈚𓊪𓅱𓀭, god of the lightning and thunderbolt.

SUTEKH 𓇓𓅱𓏏𓐰𓐍𓝱, one of the chief gods of the Kheta and Syrians.

ANIMAL-GODS AND GODDESSES, ETC.

ḤĀP 𓐑𓐰𓊪𓃒, the =Apis Bull=.

MER-UR 𓅨𓐰𓂋𓉕𓃒, the =Mnevis Bull=.

BAKHA 𓃀𓄡𓭉, the =Bachis Bull=.

BA 𓃝, the Ram-god.

SEBEK 𓋴𓃀𓎡𓆋, the Crocodile god.

TA-URT 𓏏𓄿𓅨𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏏𓆗 ⎫ RERIT 𓂋𓐰𓂋𓏏𓐰𓏲𓄛 ⎪ The Hippopotamus-goddesses. ȦPIT 𓇋𓊪𓐰𓏏𓄛 ⎪ SHEPUIT 𓈚𓐰𓊪𓐱𓏲𓏏𓐰𓆇 ⎭

MA-ḤES 𓌳𓎛𓎿𓋴𓁻, the Lion-god; lion-goddesses were numerous, _e.g._, Sekhet, Pekhth, Tefnut, etc.

MAFṬET 𓌳𓄿𓆑𓐰𓂧𓐰𓏏𓪢, the Lynx-goddess.

BAST 𓎯𓏏𓐰𓆇𓣃, the Cat-goddess; the word for “cat” was _Mȧu_ 𓏇𓇋𓅱𓃠.

ȦNPU 𓇋𓈖𓐰𓊪𓐱𓅱𓝱, the Dog, or Jackal-god.

APUAT 𓄋𓐰𓈐𓝱, the Wolf-god.

KHATRU 𓆼𓄿𓏏𓐰𓂋𓅱, the Ichneumon-god.

The following =birds= were sacred: The phoenix, _Bennu_ 𓃀𓈖𓐰𓏌𓐱𓅱𓅣; the vulture, _Nerȧu_ 𓈖𓐰𓂋𓇋𓅱𓅐; the hawk, _Bȧk_ 𓃀𓇋𓎡𓅄; the hawk of gold, _Bȧk en nub_ 𓃀𓇋𓎡𓅄𓈖𓋞𓐰𓈒𓐱𓏦; the divine hawk, _Bȧk netri_, 𓃀𓇋𓎡𓅄𓊹𓏏𓐰𓂋𓐰𓏭𓏜; the ibis, _Habû_ 𓉔𓄿𓃀𓅱𓅝; the swallow, _Ment_ 𓏠𓐰𓈖𓐰𓏏𓅨; the goose, 𓅬, of which there were several kinds; etc.

The following =reptiles= and =insects= were sacred: the turtle, _Āpesh_ 𓂝𓐰𓊪𓐰𓈚𓆉, or _Sheta_ 𓈚𓐰𓏏𓄿𓆉; the snake, _Sa-ta_ 𓅭𓇾𓐰𓏤𓐱𓈇; the scorpion, _Serk_ 𓋴𓂋𓐰𓎡𓷲; the _Āpshait_ beetle, 𓂝𓐰𓊪𓆷𓄿𓇌𓆤; the “praying mantis”, _Ābit_ 𓍋𓃀𓇋𓇋𓏏𓅬; the grasshopper, _Saneḥemu_, 𓅭𓈖𓐰𓈞𓅓𓅱𓆧; _Kheprerȧ_ the beetle, _Scarabaeus sacer_, 𓆣𓂋𓐰𓂋𓇋𓅬.

The following =fish= were sacred: The _Ȧbṭu_ 𓋁𓃀𓂧𓅱𓆟; the _Ȧnt_ 𓇋𓆛𓐰𓈖𓐰𓏏𓆟, which announced the rise of the Nile; the _Āḥa_ 𓂚𓄿𓆟; the _Āṭ_ 𓂝𓐰𓂧𓆟; the _Utu_ 𓎘𓅱𓆟; the _Meḥit_ 𓎖𓎛𓇌𓏏𓐰𓆟; the _Nār_ 𓈖𓐰𓂝𓐰𓂋𓆟; etc. Classical writers mention the Oxyrhynchus, the Phagrus, the Latus, the Lepidotus, the Silurus, the Maeotes, etc., but authorities differ in their identifications.

=Number of the gods.=—As every district, city, town, and village possessed a god, with a female counterpart and a son, and also a being of evil, or devil, to say nothing of the creatures who, in modern times, would be called vaguely “spirits,” or “fairies,” it follows that the “gods” of the Egyptians must have been very numerous. The names of a great many have been lost, but about 200 gods are mentioned in the Pyramid Texts, about 480 in the Theban Recension of the Book of the Dead, and about 1,200 in the various works which deal with the Other World; a total of about 2,200 names has been noted. The Egyptians tried to reduce the large number of their gods by declaring that their gods were merely _forms_ of the great Sun-god Rā, who was said to have “created the names of his members, which became the gods who are in the following of Rā” (Book of the Dead, xvii, 11). The Egyptian system of =Polytheism= (not Pantheism) appears to have been well suited to the early conditions of the country, but several facts make it certain that attempts were made by the priests to give their religion a distinctly monotheistic character. The results of their endeavours in this respect find expression in many texts. Under the Ancient Empire we read in the Pyramid Texts of a God who was the lord of heaven, who gave life to the dead, and who was entirely different in every way from the “gods.” In Moral Precepts we have such phrases as: “The things which God doeth cannot be known.” “The eating of bread is according to the plan of God,” _i.e._, a man’s food comes to him through the Providence of God. “Labour in the field which God hath given thee.” “God loveth obedience and hateth disobedience.” “Verily a good son is the gift of God.” “God is the righteous judge.”[21] “Wrong not thy mother lest she lift up her hands to God, and He hear her complaints (and punish thee).” “The multiplying of words is an abomination to the sanctuary of God.” And the official Paḥeri says in his Biography (line 42): “I never told lies to another man, for I knew that God dwelt among men, and I recognised Him”:—

𓂜𓆓𓐳𓂧𓇋𓎼𓐰𓂋𓍅𓅪𓐰𓏥𓂋𓎡𓐰𓇌𓀀𓂋𓐰𓐍𓐰𓏛𓎡𓐰𓅱𓀀𓊹𓐳𓏤𓇋𓏶𓰮𓏭𓂋𓐰𓍿𓀀𓁐𓏪𓋷𓄿𓀁𓇋𓇓𓅱

In funerary texts the god referred to may possibly be Osiris, god and judge of the dead, but in the Moral Precepts quoted above this is impossible, and it follows that the Egyptians believed in a God Who was wholly apart from the “Companies of Gods,” and in His wise, inscrutable, and kindly Providence.

The doctrine of =Oneness=, or =Unity=, we find in connection with the great God who created the universe and all that is in it, by whatsoever name he be called, Rā, or Tem, or Kheperȧ, or Ptaḥ, or Khnemu, or Ȧten. Thus Rā is the “Lord of heaven, lord of earth, maker of beings celestial, and of beings terrestrial, the One God, who came into being in primeval time, maker of the world, creator of men, maker of the sky, creator of the Nile, fashioner of whatsoever is in the waters, and creator of their life, maker of mountains, creator of men, and women, and beasts, and cattle, and the heavens and the earth” (Book of the Dead, Chapter CLXXII). In another passage it is said of this same god: “He is the divine matter which produced the Two Companies of Gods, every god came into being through him, God One alone, 𓌡𓐰𓏤𓐰𓂝𓌡𓐰𓏤𓐰𓂝𓏲𓐰𓏭𓀭. He made what is when the earth began in primeval time, his births are hidden, his transformations are multitudinous, and his similitude cannot be known.” It has been argued that the Egyptian idea of the Oneness of a god is a totally different thing from =Monotheism=, but, taking the facts as they stand, we are justified in saying that when the Egyptian declared that his god was One, _neter uā_ 𓊹𓀭𓌡𓐰𓏤𓐰𓂝, his meaning was identical with that expressed by the Hebrew in the words, “The Lord our God _is_ one” (Deuteronomy vi, 4), and by the Arab in his declaration, “God, He is one” (Kur’ân, _Surah_ cxii).

The principal religious beliefs of the Egyptians may be summarized thus: The =Creation=.—In the beginning there existed an immense mass of water wherein lived the god Nu. He felt the desire to create this universe, and his heart, or intelligence, who was called Thoth, spake a word expressing this desire, and the world came into being. The first act of creation was the appearance of the sun from out of the water; the light separated the heavens from the earth, and the sky was placed upon four pillars 𓉽𓉽𓉽𓉽, which marked the cardinal points.

[Illustration: The god Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter’s wheel which he works with his foot. Behind stands Thoth, marking the years of his life on a notched palm branch.]

=Creation of gods.=—According to the priests of On, the god Kheperȧ, a form of Rā, who was self-begotten and self-produced, fashioned a god and a goddess out of the matter of his own body, and these became the parents of a number of other gods and goddesses, _e.g._, Osiris and Isis, Set and Nephthys, Horus and Anubis, etc. The priests of Hermopolis declared that Thoth was the primeval god, and that the gods he created were Nu and Nut, Ḥeḥu and Ḥeḥut, Kekui and Kekuit, Ḳerḥ and Ḳerḥit. The first pair represent the watery mass out of which everything came; the second, indefinite time, or eternity; the third, darkness; and the fourth, night. The priests of Saïs taught that their goddess Net (Neith) was self-begotten and self-produced, that she was the mother of Rā, the Sun-god, and at the same time a virgin-goddess.

=Creation of men.=—According to a very old legend, mankind was divided into four races: 1. RETH, or REMT, _i.e._, “Men,” 𓂋𓐰𓍿𓀀𓁐𓏪; these were the Egyptians. 2. ĀAMU 𓌙𓅓𓅱𓏪, or the peoples of the Eastern Desert. 3. THEMEḤU 𓍿𓐰𓎖𓅱𓏪, _i.e._, the Libyans. 4. NEḤESU 𓅘𓎛𓋴𓅱𓏪, _i.e._, the black and brown peoples, and Negroes and Negroids, of the Sûdân. The Egyptians or “Men,” were formed out of the tears which fell from the Eye of Rā; these dropped upon the members of his body and then turned into men and women. The Libyans came into being through some act of the Sun-god in connection with his Eye, and the Āamu and the Neḥesu were descended irregularly from Rā. Another legend declared that man was made out of potters’ mud on a wheel by Khnemu, the ram-headed god of Philae.

=Destruction of mankind.=—After Rā had been reigning for a considerable time, men and women began to speak contemptuously of him, and to blaspheme him. Rā assembled the gods and took counsel with them, and, as the result, he sent forth his Eye among mankind in the form of the goddess Hathor, who destroyed men from off the earth with the exception of a small company. The goddess Sekhet assisted in the slaughter, and for several days wandered about Egypt wading in pools of men’s blood. At length Rā was appeased, and he stopped the work of slaughter; but he was weary of man, and determined to withdraw himself from the management of his affairs. After taking further counsel with the gods he retreated to a newly-constituted portion of heaven, and created there the =Sekhet-ḥetepet=, or =Elysian Fields=.

According to another legend preserved in the CLXXVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead (Papyrus of Ani, No. 10,470), a general destruction of mankind was caused by =the Flood=, which was brought upon the world by the god Temu, who announced his intention of destroying everything in it, and of covering the earth with the waters of the primeval ocean Nu. The flood appears to have begun at Ḥenensu, in Upper Egypt, the Khânês of Isaiah xxx, 4, and the Herakleopolis of the Greeks, and to have submerged all Egypt. All life was destroyed, and the only beings who survived were those who were in the “Boat of Millions of Years,” _i.e._, the Ark of the Sun-god, with the god Temu. The mutilated state of a large portion of the text makes it impossible to piece the details together, but it seems that, after the earth was covered by the Flood, Temu sailed over the waters to the Island of Flame, and took up his abode there. Subsequently he was succeeded by Osiris, whose authority was disputed by Set, the god of evil; but eventually Set was overthrown, and Osiris ruled triumphantly.

The =Legend of Horus and Set=.—In very early times legends were current concerning the great fight which took place between Horus the Great, the Sun-god, the god of day, light, life, and of all physical and moral good, and Set, the god of night, darkness, death, and of all physical and moral evil. Set succeeded in carrying off the Eye of Horus, _i.e._, the Sun, and tried to devour it, but the Eye of Horus inflicted a deadly wound on Set, and cut off and carried away one of his thighs. At length Thoth, the intelligence of Rā, interfered, and made an arrangement between the two combatant gods, whereby the day (Horus) was to be a certain length, and the night (Set) likewise, and neither was to destroy the other. Because of this decision Thoth was called “Ȧp reḥui,” or “Judge of the Combatants.” Now the moon was the second, or left, eye of Horus the Great, and it was much persecuted by Set during fourteen nights of every month. Each night Set succeeded in cutting off a piece from it, and at length no moon was left. Thoth, however, made new moons, which he placed in the sky month by month, and thus frustrated the evil deeds of Set. On one occasion Set was wandering about the sky in the evening and found there the crescent, or new moon, which he immediately swallowed, but he was eventually made to disgorge it by Thoth, who was watching over it. At a later period, when the moon was identified with Osiris, the enmity of Set was transferred to Osiris, and the legend entered upon a new phase; Osiris became the symbol of moral good, and Set of moral evil and wickedness.

The views held by the Egyptians about Osiris from about B.C. 3800 to the Roman Period may be thus summarized:—=Legend of Osiris.=—Osiris, in Egyptian ȦSȦR 𓁹𓐰𓊨, was once a king who reigned in the south of Egypt; his sister-wife was called =Isis=, in Egyptian ȦST 𓊨𓏏, and their son Horus, in Egyptian ḤERU 𓅃. He did great good to all his people, and taught them the arts of agriculture, and made good laws for them, and ruled them justly. Now Osiris had a twin brother called =Set= 𓊃𓐰𓏏𓐱𓈜, the SÊTH of Plutarch, who was very jealous of him, and who lost no opportunity of undermining his authority and reviling him, for he wished to see Osiris removed from his path, so that he might seize his brother’s throne and wife. At length, by a stratagem, he managed to kill Osiris, by drowning him in the Nile. The river, however, carried the dead body of Osiris to the papyrus swamps in the Delta, where the waters deposited it on the lower branches of an acacia tree, which grew up round it and concealed it. Isis discovered, by magical means, where her husband’s body was, and went to the place and took possession of it. Wishing to visit her son Horus, so that she might urge him to take vengeance on Set, she hid the body in a secret spot, and went off to the city of Buto to Horus. During her absence, Set found the body one night when he was out hunting, and recognizing it, he tore it into fourteen pieces, which he scattered about the country. Isis, having heard what Set had done, set out and collected the portions of the body of Osiris, and wherever she found one of them she buried it, and built a shrine over it.

[Illustration: Osiris rising from the sarcophagus with “life” in each hand. On each side are two of the children of Horus.]

Now Isis was a great enchantress, and she learned from Thoth the knowledge of magical ceremonies and of most potent words of power. She was able to transform herself into any kind of creature, and to travel through earth, air, fire, or water with equal ease. Instructed by his mother, Horus, with the assistance of a number of his “followers,” performed a series of ceremonies connected with the burial of his father, which had the effect of raising Osiris from the dead, and of establishing him as king in Ȧmenti, _i.e._, the “Hidden Place,” or the Other World. When this was done, Osiris appeared to Horus and urged him to avenge him on Set, and shortly afterwards a great fight between Horus and Set took place. Set was defeated and, according to the XVIIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, mutilated by Horus, who suffered no injury whatsoever. The great fight took place near the modern city of Asyûṭ, and lasted three days; each god fought in the form of a wolf or bear. (Fourth Sallier Papyrus in the British Museum.)

The cult of Osiris is as old as Dynastic Egyptian civilization, and, from the earliest to the latest times, he was regarded as the god-man who suffered, died, rose again, and reigned eternally in heaven. He was the “King of eternity, lord of the everlastingness, the prince of gods and men, the god of gods, king of kings, lord of lords, prince of princes, the governor of the world, whose existence is everlasting” (Papyrus of Ani, Plate I). To the Egyptians Osiris was the god who “made men and women to be born again,” 𓄠𓋴𓏏𓐰𓍃𓰮𓅱𓀀𓁐𓏪𓰮𓄙𓰮, who made them to rise from the dead, and bestowed upon them everlasting life; he was, in all times, the cause of their resurrection, and was also the =resurrection= itself. He was both god and man, and could sympathize with them in sickness and death, and the idea of his human personality brought them comfort. The confidence with which men looked to him as a being who knew neither decay nor corruption is best expressed in the words of a text on coffin No. 22,940 (Wall-case No. 40, First Egyptian Room). “Homage to thee, O my father Osiris! Thy flesh suffered no decay, worms touched thee not, thou didst not moulder away, withering came not on thee, and thou didst not suffer corruption; and I shall possess my flesh for ever and ever, I shall not crumble away, I shall not wither, I shall not become corruption.”

The =Kingdom of Osiris= was situated in Sekhet-ḥetep 𓇏𓏏𓐰𓏭𓈇𓐰𓏤𓊵𓐰𓏏𓐱𓊪𓊖, _i.e._, the “Field of Peace,” a division of Sekhet-Ȧaru, or the “Field of Reeds.” From the pictures of this region given in papyri we see that it was surrounded by a stream of water, and intersected by numerous canals, and, judging by the descriptions given in these pictures, it must have been considered to be a very fertile place. The wheat and the barley there grew to a great height, and plants, vegetables, and fruit trees abounded. The idea of the Sekhet-ḥetep was no doubt suggested by the fertile regions of the Delta and the Oases in the Western Desert.

[Illustration: Osiris in his shrine.]

[Illustration: Thoth in the form of an ape weighing the heart in the presence of Osiris.]

[Illustration: The goddess Maāt weighing the heart in the presence of the ape of Thoth. By her side is the Eater of the Dead.]

[Illustration: The Judgment of Osiris, from the Book of Gates.

=A= Osiris seated on a throne with nine steps.

=B= The scales in which the hearts of the dead were weighed.

=C= The pig, symbol of evil, in a boat under the charge of an ape, the companion of Thoth.

=D= Anubis, the god of the tomb.

=E= Heads of gazelle, typical of the enemies of Osiris.]

In one part of this kingdom was placed the =Judgment Hall of Osiris=, and there sat the great judge of the dead. The soul of every man was brought there and weighed in the “Great Balance” in his presence, by Thoth, the scribe of the gods. The soul was represented by the heart 𓄣, and was weighed against the feather 𓆄, symbolic of righteousness (_maāt_). If the heart failed to counterbalance the feather it was cast to an animal monster called Ām-mit, _i.e._, “Eater of the Dead,” which was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus. When the heart and the feather balanced exactly Thoth announced the fact to the gods of his company, and then the soul of the deceased was taken by Horus into the presence of Osiris, who rewarded him according to his deserts. Before the weighing of the heart took place the deceased was obliged, presumably, to pass along the Hall of Osiris, and to make the =Negative Confession= before the Two and Forty Assessors of the Dead, “who tried sinners, and fed upon their blood, on the day when the lives of men are reckoned up in the presence of the Good Being” (Osiris). Apparently each of these beings asked him the question: “Hast thou committed such and such a sin”? For his answers, as given in the Book of the Dead (Chapter CXXV), take these forms:—

“Hail, Long-strider, coming from Ȧnnu, I have not committed iniquity.

“Hail, Eater of shades, coming from Qerti, I have not stolen.

“Hail, Bad-face, coming from Re-stau, I have killed neither man nor woman.

“Hail, Flame, advancing and retreating, I have not robbed God.

“Hail, Uamemti, coming from the house of slaughter, I have not committed adultery.

“Hail, Two-horns, coming from Saïs, I have not multiplied words overmuch.”

The =forty-two sins= enumerated in the Negative Confession represent the chief sins abominated by the Egyptians under the XVIIIth dynasty.

The texts connected with the examination of the dead show that the Egyptian =idea of sin= was different from that of Western nations. With the Egyptian the commission of sin was regarded merely as a breach of the ritual law, or of the law of the community, and could be atoned for by the payment of goods or possessions; this payment once made, the law-breaker considered that he was free from all obligation, real or moral. The idea of =repentance= finds no expression in Egyptian texts, and, curiously enough, there is no word in Coptic for “repentance.” The translators of the New Testament from Greek into Coptic were obliged to use the Greek word μετάνοια. From the earliest times the Egyptians appear to have believed firmly that the righteous would be rewarded in the Other World, and the wicked punished, but there is no definite statement on this point in the texts until the XIXth dynasty, when the =doctrine of retribution= is clearly expressed. In the Second Part of the “Book of Gates” a number of beings are described as “those who worshipped Rā upon earth, who spake words of power against the Evil One (Āpep), who made offerings to Rā, and burnt incense to their own gods.” Other beings are described as “those who spake truth upon earth, and who did not approach false gods” 𓈖𓐰𓏏𓐰𓂋𓇌𓅪𓐰𓏥. In return for this Rā gave to them food and drink which should never fail, and decreed that their souls should never be hacked in pieces. Close by, in the same section of the work, are mentioned the “rebels against Rā, who blasphemed the god when they were upon earth, who thrust aside right, and cursed the god of the horizon.” As punishment for these deeds Rā decreed that they should be bound in chains, that their bodies should be cut in pieces, and their souls destroyed.

The =rewards of the righteous= were, moreover, graduated, for when Osiris decreed that such and such a soul was to receive an estate in his kingdom, the land measurers of heaven took their measuring ropes with them, and going into the Elysian Fields measured out for those who were deemed righteous plots, which varied in size according to their merits. According to another view the blessed lived always with the Sun-god in his boat, and travelled with him across the sky day by day. The “gods” in heaven spent their lives in ministering to their god Osiris, or Rā, and in performing his commands, and the duty of a certain number of them consisted in singing to him and praising him at dawn and at sunset. The spirits and souls of the righteous, in their glorified bodies, became “beings and messengers” of God, and they sat on the great throne by his side. They wore the finest raiment, and white linen garments and sandals, they ate of the “tree of life” 𓆱𓐰𓐍𓐱𓏤𓆱𓈖𓋹𓈖𓐰𓐍, and sat with the great gods by the side of the Great Lake in the Field of Peace, their bread and drink never grew stale, they neither thirsted nor hungered, and they enjoyed celestial figs and wine. In one portion of the kingdom of Osiris the blessed cultivated the divine plant Maāt, whereon both they and Osiris lived, and eating the same food they became one with him, and shared with him his attributes of divinity, incorruptibility, and immortality.

[Illustration: The holy Ape-gods singing hymns of praise to Rā at sunrise.]

[Illustration: The Jackal-gods and the Hawk-gods singing hymns of praise to Rā at sunset.]

=The wicked= who were in the Other World consisted of two classes: 1. The =enemies of Rā=, the Sun-god. 2. The =enemies of Osiris=, _i.e._, the souls of sinful men and women. The former were gathered together each night and did their utmost to prevent the sun rising morning by morning, but they were always seized by the angels of Rā and dragged by them to the eastern portion of the sky, where they were cast into the fiery caldrons of the god and consumed in their flames. The heavy mists and clouds of the morning represented the smoke of these caldrons, and the red glare of dawn was the reflection of their flames. Opinions differed as to the way in which the enemies of Osiris were disposed of. According to some, those who were condemned in the Judgment were devoured by the monster =Ām-mit=, the “=Eater of the Dead=”; but others held that they were dragged to the divine block of doom 𓌩, where they were beheaded by the headsman of Osiris, called =Shesmu= 𓈚𓐰𓊃𓅓𓅱𓀭. Sometimes their bodies were hacked limb from limb by him, and sometimes they were seized upon by the “Watchers,” who “carry slaughtering knives, and have cruel fingers,” and cut the dead into pieces, which were thrown down into pits of fire, or into the great Lake of Fire. Here at one corner sat a monster who swallowed hearts and ate up the dead, himself remaining invisible; his name was “Devourer for millions of years.”

The =judgment of souls= took place at midnight, and the righteous were rewarded, and the condemned punished before a new day began. The souls of all those who had died during the day were judged that day, and their cases disposed of finally; =eternal happiness= was decreed for the blessed, and =annihilation, not everlasting punishment=, for the wicked. In late times there are passages in the texts which suggest that certain souls who set out from this world for the kingdom of Osiris failed to reach it, either because the amulets which were buried with their bodies were not sufficiently powerful, or because their offerings to the gods were too few when they were on earth. There is no evidence that such souls were believed to suffer, or that the portion of the Other World beyond which they had been unable to proceed was a sort of =purgatory=. They dwelt in darkness during the greater part of each day, but the Sun-god passed among them each night, and spake words on which they lived until the next night; when he departed they wept as the doors of their abode closed on them, and shut him from their sight.

The views of the Egyptians about the position of =heaven= PET 𓊪𓐱𓏏𓐰𓇯, and the Other World changed in different periods.

In the earliest times heaven was believed to be situated above the large, flat rectangular slab of iron (or alabaster?) which formed the sky. This slab was supported on four pillars, which were kept in position and presided over by the four sons of Horus, Mesthȧ, Ḥāpi, Ṭuamutef, and Qebḥsennuf. These four gods sat on pillars, which, subsequently, were regarded as the =four cardinal points=. The stars were believed to be hung from the slab by hooks through holes, 𓻊, like lamps from a ceiling. The righteous ascended to this heaven by means of a ladder. Osiris himself was obliged to use a ladder, and Horus and Set held each one side of the ladder [glyph not in Unicode], and assisted him to mount with their fingers. The models of ladders and of the two forefingers which are found in tombs commemorate this event.

The name given to the =Other World= was =Ṭuat= 𓇼𓄿𓏏𓐰𓉐. This region was not _under_ the earth, or deep in it, but ran parallel with Egypt, which formed one side of it. A river flowed through the whole length of it. On the other side of the river was a range of mountains, and outside this was the great celestial ocean which surrounded the world. The Ṭuat was a valley which in the XIXth dynasty was believed to begin near Thebes, at Manu, the Mountain of Sunset, and, stretching northwards as far as Saïs, bent round towards the east until it reached the region of Ȧnnu (On), when it turned to the south and continued until it ended at Bakhet, the Mountain of Sunrise. The Ṭuat was divided into ten sections, and had a vestibule at each end of it, and in the XIXth dynasty it included the local kingdoms of the dead of Thebes, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Memphis, Saïs, Bubastis, and Ȧnnu. Each section was guarded by a massive gate, with battlements, but its door flew open before the Sun-god as he traversed the Ṭuat nightly in his boat. According to one legend there was a small passage at Abydos called “Peka,” _i.e._, the =Gap=, which connected this world with the Ṭuat; and according to another there was a similar passage at Thebes. Be this as it may, the souls of all those who had died during the day assembled in the passage each evening and endeavoured to obtain a seat in the solar bark as the god passed by. In its passage the boat passed the kingdom of Osiris; those who preferred a material heaven disembarked at that spot, and those who desired to become like Rā and to be with him remained in their places in the boat. For all souls, however, there was an examination of their credentials, and those who were not provided with amulets, and with formulas and words of power, were ejected.

=Recognition of Friends.=—From the statements made in papyri and on coffins there is no doubt that the Egyptians believed that they would know and recognize each other in the Other World, and would enjoy intercourse with their relatives and friends. In the Papyrus of Ȧnhai (B.C. 1040), we see this lady meeting her father and mother in the Sekhet-ḥetep, or Elysian Fields, and sailing with her husband in a boat on one of the canals; in the Papyrus of Ani (B.C. 1500) we see the deceased seated with his wife Thuthu playing draughts; and the scribe Nebseni (B.C. 1550) says: “I have seen the Osiris (_i.e._, his father), and I have recognized my mother.” In the Book of the Dead (Chapter LII) the deceased prays: “May my ancestors, and my father and mother be given unto me as guardians of my door, and for the ordering of my territory,” and in Chapter LXVIII he declares that he shall have authority over his workmen and workwomen just as he had upon earth. On a coffin of the XIth dynasty (B.C. 2600) at Cairo the gods Rā, Tem, Seb, and Nut are implored to grant the “gathering together of the ancestors and kinsfolk of Sepȧ in the Other World,” in the following words: “Let him traverse heaven, and earth, and the waters, let him meet his ancestors, and his father, and his mother, and his sons and daughters, and his brethren and his sisters, and his friends both male and female, and those who have been as parents to him (_i.e._, uncles and aunts), and his kinsfolk (_i.e._, cousins or connexions), and those who have worked for him on earth, both male and female, and the woman whom he hath loved and known.”[22] In the second portion of the text it is declared that all these shall come forth to meet Sepȧ on his arrival in the Other World, and that they shall bear in their hands their staves, and their mattocks, and their ploughshares, and their clubs, so that in the event of any attack being made upon him by any hostile god, they may deliver their kinsman forthwith.

The use of =amulets= played a very large part in the Egyptian religion. They were generally made of stones and other materials believed to possess magical properties, which their wearers were supposed to acquire. A fine collection of Egyptian amulets is exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian Room (Table-case F), where examples of every authorized shape and kind will be found. In connexion with these the unrivalled =collection of scarabs= should be examined (Table-cases D, E, G, I).

[Illustration: Flint amulets of the Predynastic Period.

The Oryx. The Crocodile. A Fish. Hippopotamus.

[See Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]]

The following are the principal amulets mentioned in funerary texts or found in tombs with, or on, the bodies of the dead: The =scarab=, or =beetle=, _kheprer_ 𓆣𓂋𓐰𓂋𓅬, was the symbol of the god Kheperȧ, and represented generation, new life, virility, and resurrection. The =Heart=, _ȧb_ 𓄣, symbol of the seat of life in the bodies of gods, animals, and men, and emblem of the conscience; it brought to the wearer the protection of both Osiris and Rā. The heart was associated with the scarab, and the same _ḥekau_, or words of power, were written on both. The importance of this amulet is shown by the fact that in the Book of the Dead six chapters are devoted to formulas for the protection of the heart. The =Girdle of Isis=, _thet_ 𓎬, assured the wearer of the divine protection of the holy blood of the goddess. The =Ṭeṭ= 𓊽, a fetish, the original significance of which is unknown. In later times it symbolized the tree trunk in which the body of Osiris was hidden by Isis, and also the upright, consolidated back-bone of the god. Its general meaning is stability. The =Pillow= 𓊫 typified the raising up and preservation of the head. The =Vulture= 𓅐 brought with it the protection of the great “Mother” Isis. The =Collar= 𔆈 gave strength and power to the breast, heart, and lungs, and symbolized the dominion of the wearer over all Egypt. The =Papyrus Sceptre= 𓇅 represented the strength, vigour, and virility of youth, and abundance of every kind.

The =human-headed Hawk= 𓳕 ensured to the deceased the power of uniting his body, soul and spirit at will. The =Ladder= [glyph not in unicode] symbolized the ladder by which Osiris ascended from the earth to heaven. Models of this were buried with the dead in the tombs, and when the deceased needed a ladder he uttered the Chapter of the Ladder, and the model ladder became as long as he wanted. The =Two Fingers= [glyph not in unicode] index and medius, represent the fingers which Horus used when he helped his father Osiris up the ladder which reached from earth to heaven.

The =Utchat= 𓂀 typified the strength and power of the Eye of Horus, or Rā, _i.e._, the Sun-god, the two eyes 𓂀𓑀𓂀 gave to the wearer the strength and protection both of the Sun and Moon. The =Ānkh= 𓋹, or symbol of “life.” What object this amulet represented is unknown. The =Nefer= 𓄤, or lute, signified “happiness, good luck,” etc. The =Serpent’s Head= 𓵊 protected its wearer when alive against snake bite, and when dead against the attacks of worms and serpents in the tomb. The =Menȧt= 𓋧 represented nutrition, and the union of the male and female powers of nature, generation, etc. The =Sma= 𓄥 symbolized animal pleasure. The =Shen= 𓍶 was the emblem of the orbit of the sun in heaven. King Besh, of the IInd dynasty, wrote his name within this circle, which in an elongated form 𓍷 became the cartouche of the later kings. The _shen_ was the symbol of the eternal protection of the name by Rā.

The =Steps= 𓊍 symbolized the throne of Osiris, and procured for the wearer “exaltation” to and in heaven. The =Plumes= 𓴥 symbolized Isis and Nephthys, who had their seat on the forehead of Rā, and the Maāti goddesses, or goddesses of Right and Truth. The =Frog= 𓆏 was typical of teeming life and the resurrection. It was the symbol of the goddess Ḥeqt, the wife of Khnemu, who made the first man on a potter’s wheel, and when laid on a dead person transferred to him the new life which was in the body of the goddess. The =Pesesh-Kef= 𔊉 suggests the idea of second birth in connexion with the ceremonies of Opening the Mouth. The mouth of the mummy, or of a statue, was touched with this amulet, or instrument, whilst the priest recited words of power; as a result of that the mouth was “opened,” _i.e._, the deceased could henceforth talk, think, walk, eat, drink, etc., in the Other World. A fine example of this amulet in flint (Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room) of the Neolithic Period proves that the idea of “opening the mouth” is older than the dynasties of Egypt. The =Solar Disk= on the horizon 𓈌 symbolizes life which renews itself, resurrection, virility, strength, etc. The =Neterui= 𓊋𓑀𓊋𓑀, or 𓊹𓊹, represent the two iron instruments used in the ceremony of “opening the mouth”; their presence among the swathings of the mummy, or in the tomb, secured for the deceased the protection of the gods of the South and the North.

On rare occasions all the amulets mentioned above have been found in one tomb, or on a single body. A good example of a collection of amulets found on a single body is No. 4 (Table-case K, Fourth Egyptian Room). Here will be seen uraei, the _menȧt_, the _utchat_, the scarab, the _shen_, the triad of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpokrates: the papyrus sceptre, the heart, the plumes, the two fingers, ṭeṭs, etc.; the places on the body on which they were found are indicated by the labels. Another class of amulets is represented by the figures of gods, goddesses, and sacred animals, which were either worn as pendants to necklaces, etc., during life, or placed among the swathings of the mummified body. Of these the British Museum possesses very large collections, and the finest examples of them will be found in Wall-cases Nos. 119-132, in the Third Egyptian Room. A very remarkable group of amulets or objects, which were intended to give protection to the tomb of the priestess for whom they were made, is exhibited in the Second Egyptian Room (Wall-case No. 73). It consists of a Ṭeṭ 𓊽, a human figure 𓀾, a jackal 𓃣, and a reed, and each object stands on a small inscribed brick of Nile mud. The ceremony in which these were used is described in the Book of the Dead (Chapter CXXXVII). The text is only found in the Papyrus of Nu (No. 10,477), and the group of objects which illustrates it appears to be unique.

In connexion with the numerous ceremonies which found a prominent place in the cult of Osiris must be mentioned two classes of =magical figures=. It has already been said that the righteous who lived in the kingdom of Osiris were employed in the cultivation of the _Maāt_ wheat, on which both they and Osiris lived. Now, before this wheat could be grown, it was assumed that the land of the celestial fields had to be prepared and watered, and renewed with top-dressing, just like the fields on earth. These laborious agricultural works were performed by a celestial _corvée_, which was under the general control of the “Ḥenbiu,” or gods of the Celestial Domain Lands. These gods provided estates for the blessed, and carefully watched the land measurers to see that they carried out their orders. They also provided gangs of beings to work these fields, and set taskmasters (Tchatchaiu) and time-keepers (Kheru āḥāu) over them, so that they might make them toil their appointed time. Why these beings were condemned to forced labour cannot be explained, for not a word is said which would suggest that they were sinners, and that their work was a punishment. The Egyptian theologians appear to have been incapable of conceiving a heaven in which there was no _corvée_ to perform menial tasks, and equally incapable of imagining the existence of a _corvée_ which did not need the constant supervision of time-keepers and gangers.

Be this as it may, the Egyptians, as a people, hated forced labour, and the priests found a way for them to escape from it. The means chosen was the =Shabti=, or =Ushabti figure=.[23] The meaning of the word Ushabti is unknown. Some associate the name with that of the persea tree (=shab=, or =shabt=), but others connect it with the word =ushab=, “to answer,” and think the figure was called =Ushabti=, because in the text cut upon it the figure “answers” and says: “Verily I am there,” etc. The Ushabti figure was a figure made of wood, stone, porcelain, metal, etc., which was intended to represent the person on whose behalf it was fashioned, and it was supposed to carry a digging tool and a basket in which to remove earth or sand from one place to another. In short, the Ushabti figure is a model of a farm labourer or _fallâḥ_. On the figure it was customary to cut a formula which was supposed to be said by the deceased in the Other World, to this effect: “In the event of my being condemned to spread dust (_i.e._, _sebakh_ or top-dressing) on the fields in the Ṭuat, or to fill the water-courses with water from the river, or to reap the harvest, such work shall be performed for me by thee, and no obstacle shall be put in thy way.” Below this formula were cut the words with which the figure was supposed to answer: “Verily I am there, wheresoever thou mayest speak” (or call me). When the deceased found himself in the Other World, and condemned to work in the celestial _corvée_, he was supposed to utter the words rendered above, and if they had been spoken in a correct tone of voice, the figure would change into a full-grown man, who was provided with a digging tool and basket, and who was capable of performing field labours.

The dread of forced labour in the minds of the Egyptians resulted in the production of the immense numbers of Ushabti figures which are seen in all great museums. The number found in some tombs is very large; thus, Seti I caused 700 to be buried with him, and, at the present time, there are 149 figures in the Ushabti-box of Ānkh-f-en-Khensu in Wall-case 116, in the Third Egyptian Room. The collection of Ushabti figures in the British Museum (Second Egyptian Room) is unrivalled, and contains fine specimens of every period from about B.C. 2600 to B.C. 600. Worthy of note are the limestone figure of Ȧāḥmes I, the fine diorite figure of king Ȧmen-ḥetep II, the granite figure of Ȧmen-ḥetep III, the porcelain and wooden figures of Seti I, and the figures of Rameses III, Rameses V, Psammetichus I, and Uaḥ-ȧb-Rā (Pharaoh Ḥophra).

Other figures which were highly esteemed as possessing magical powers were those to which the name of Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr, or =Ptaḥ-Socharis-Osiris=, has been given (see Second Egyptian Room, Wall-cases 89-92). Ptaḥ was the creator of the world, according to the doctrine of Memphis; Seker was the god of the Other World of Memphis; and Ȧsȧr, or Osiris, has already been discussed; these three gods were united in the later theology, and the resultant god was regarded as the lord of Heaven, Earth, and the Other World. Figures of this triune god were made of wood, painted or gilded, and fixed on a rectangular stand, in which two cavities were usually hollowed out, one in front of the figure and one at one side. In the cavity in front a little piece of the body of the deceased was placed, and a cover was fitted over it, with a figure of the hawk of Seker 𓅌 upon it; in the cavity in the side of the pedestal a small roll of papyrus inscribed with prayers was inserted. The figure and pedestal were often inscribed with formulas in which the triune god Ptaḥ-Seker-Ȧsȧr was invoked, and it was believed that so long as the portion of the dead body that was in the pedestal of the figure was preserved, the body in the tomb would be kept in its integrity and everlasting life would be assured for the soul. Typical examples of these figures are Nos. 9870 and 9736 (Wall-cases 90 and 91, Second Egyptian Room). Originally the figure on the pedestal was that of Osiris himself, standing upon the symbol of Maāt, or Truth 𓐙; a good example is No. 20,868, which is hollow; it contained the fine copy of the Book of the Dead of the priestess Ȧnhai, which is in the British Museum (No. 10,472, Wall-case 90, Second Egyptian Room).

We have already seen that, after the murder and mutilation of the body of Osiris, the Man-god of the primitive Egyptians, by Set, the god of evil, Horus the son of Osiris, assisted by a number of beings who are called the =Followers of Horus=, performed a number of magical ceremonies, whereby the rejoining of the limbs of the god was effected, and the preservation of his body was secured for ever. The Egyptians argued: Certain ceremonies were performed by Horus on the dead body of Osiris, and he was mummified, and as a result he rose from the dead; we therefore will have the ceremonies which were performed over Osiris performed over our dead bodies, which shall be mummified, as was the body of Osiris, and we also shall rise from the dead. Every Egyptian from the time of the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3600, believed that his existence in the Other World depended upon the =mummification= of his body in this world, and during his lifetime he made provision for his embalmment, and, when his means permitted, prepared a tomb in which his mummified body should be placed. Now the Egyptian had several reasons for mummifying the dead: 1. He wished the souls of the dead to enjoy everlasting life. 2. He wished to maintain dwelling places for the Kau or “doubles” of the dead, so that they might not be obliged to wander about in the deserts in search of food. 3. He wished the dead to form a bond of union between the gods and himself. 4. He believed that the soul came back to the body from time to time. 5. He believed in the resurrection of the material body itself, and that at some future time it would be united to its soul for all eternity. This last was the chief reason why he preserved the body with spices, unguents, bitumen, etc., and, in spite of the very high state of civilization to which the Egyptians attained, the belief in the supreme importance of mummification was never wholly eradicated from the minds of ordinary folk, even after they had embraced Christianity.

In the most primitive times the dead were mutilated to prevent their returning to their native places to live upon the food needed for the living, but in the Dynastic Period the utmost care was taken to prevent the mutilation of the body, and to preserve it from destruction caused by damp, dry rot, or worms. The texts state plainly that after the resurrection the body was to live upon earth, whilst the soul dwelt in heaven. In the Vth dynasty it was written: “The soul belongeth to heaven, and the body to earth,” and in the VIth dynasty it is said to king Pepi: “Thy essence belongeth to heaven, and thy body belongeth to earth.” The same idea occurs in all dynasties down to the Ptolemaïc Period, when we find in the “Lamentations of Isis” the words addressed to the deceased, who is identified with Osiris: “Heaven hath thy soul, and earth hath thy body.”

Before an account of the process of mummification is given, it will be well to note briefly the views which the Egyptians held as to the relationship of the component parts of the material and spiritual man. Most peoples have divided man into three parts, =body=, =soul=, and =spirit=; but the Egyptian system of the human economy was more complex. The material part of a man was the =khat= 𓷓𓐳𓏏𓐎, or =body=. Through mummification, and the prayers which were recited over it after that process, the body obtained a degree of knowledge, and power, and glory, whereby it became henceforth lasting and incorruptible. This =glorified body= was called a =Sāḥu= 𓊃𓐰𓂝𓎛𓅱𓋩. When a man was born into the world there was also born with him an abstract individuality, or personality, which remained with him all the days of his life, and could only be separated permanently from him by death. To this personality is given the name =Ka= 𓂓𓐰𓏤, a word which has been translated by “double, genius, image, character, person, self,” etc.

When the Ka left the body at death it was necessary for the living to find a habitation, and to provide meat, and drink, and shelter for it. Otherwise it would be obliged to wander about in search of food, and if it failed to find it, would return and wreak vengeance on the living. Provision was therefore made for the Ka in the tomb of the dead person of whom it had once formed a part. First a statue was made in stone, or wood, and fashioned to represent the deceased. Over this a long series of ceremonies was performed, and at the end of them the deceased was declared to have obtained the powers of talking, thinking, walking, etc., and the statue was supposed to be in a fit state to receive the Ka should it be pleased to enter into it and dwell there. A special chamber was set apart in the tomb for the statue, and through an opening in one of the walls which communicated with the hall of the tomb wherein the offerings were made, the Ka inhabiting this statue was able to enjoy the smell of the incense, meat, wine, and other offerings. It had power to leave the statue and to wander about at will on earth and in the Other World; and there are suggestions in the texts that it might take up its abode in the body of a living man from which his Ka had temporarily gone forth for some purpose of its own.

With the Ka was closely connected the =Ȧb= 𓄣𓐰𓏤, or =heart=, which was regarded as the seat of life and the source of the emotions; it possessed two phases, one material and the other spiritual. It corresponds with the “dual soul” of many tribes in the Sûdân at the present day. The spiritual heart could be stolen from a man by the exercise of magical powers; and this belief survives among certain peoples in Central Africa at the present day. Another attribute of a man was the =Sekhem= 𓋴𓐍𓅓𓌂, or =vital power=, which was intimately connected with the Ka, and seems to have possessed a form similar to it. The mental and spiritual attributes of man were grouped in the =Khu= 𓐍𓅜𓅱, the exact meaning of which it is very hard to define. The Khu seems to have been a shining, translucent, transparent, intangible essence of a man, and the word is on the whole perhaps best rendered by =spirit=. The Khu escaped from the tomb and made its way to heaven, where it joined the “imperishable spirits” who lived with Rā. It is probable that the Sāḥu, Ȧb, Sekhem, and Khu were all attributes of the Ka.

That part of a man which was, beyond all doubt, believed to be everlasting and to enjoy eternal existence in heaven in a state of glory, was the =Ba= 𓅡𓐴𓏤, or =soul=; it was associated with the Ka, and, like the heart, appears to have possessed a dual nature. It could live in a state of invisibility, and yet could take form at pleasure; it is often depicted as a human-headed hawk, 𓳕𓐴𓏤. The object of all the ceremonies which were performed over the mummy or the statue in the tomb was to bring back the soul from heaven to the body in which it dwelt on earth, and when the priest told the kinsfolk of the deceased that “Horus had recovered his eye,” _i.e._, that the soul had returned to the body, they felt that everlasting life and happiness were secured for him. The souls of the blessed lived with the “spirits” in the heaven of Rā, and when they appeared in the sky they did so under the form of stars.

The soul was usually accompanied by the =Khaibit= 𓋼𓐰𓏤𓐱𓏏, or =shadow=, which may be compared with the σκία of the Greeks, and the _umbra_ of the Romans. It had an independent existence, and was able to separate itself from the body at will, but hostile fiends might attack it, and therefore the deceased prays in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XCII): “Let not be shut in my soul, let not be fettered my shadow, let a way be opened for my soul and for my shadow, and let them see the Great God.” It is very difficult to know where the functions of each of these parts of a man began and ended, for even the Egyptians became confused in dealing with them, and the texts often contradict each other. The main facts are, however, quite clear. The Egyptians believed in the existence of body, double, spirit, soul, and shadow, at all periods, and the views which they held about each are best understood by reference to the religious beliefs which exist at the present time among the A-Zandê, or Nyam-Nyam, the Bantu, the Mañbattu, and cognate tribes in Central Africa. Under the influence of foreigners the primitive views became modified as time went on, but in all essentials the Egyptians who served under the Romans believed what their ancestors believed 5,000 years before.