Part 1

CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA

By

EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E.,

Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger, Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa, Romana di Anthropologia.

Assisted by

K. Rangachari, M.A., of the Madras Government Museum.

Volume V--M to P

Government Press, Madras

1909.

CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

VOLUME V.

MARAKKAYAR.--The Marakkayars are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Tamil-speaking Musalman tribe of mixed Hindu and Musalman origin, the people of which are usually traders. They seem to be distinct from the Labbais (q.v.) in several respects, but the statistics of the two have apparently been confused, as the numbers of the Marakkayars are smaller than they should be." Concerning the Marakkayars of the South Arcot district, Mr. Francis writes as follows. [1] "The Marakkayars are largely big traders with other countries such as Ceylon and the Straits Settlements, and own most of the native coasting craft. They are particularly numerous in Porto Novo. The word Marakkayar is usually derived from the Arabic markab, a boat. The story goes that, when the first immigrants of this class (who, like the Labbais, were driven from their own country by persecutions) landed on the Indian shore, they were naturally asked who they were, and whence they came. In answer they pointed to their boats, and pronounced the word markab, and they became in consequence known to the Hindus as Marakkayars, or the people of markab. The Musalmans of pure descent hold themselves to be socially superior to the Marakkaayars, and the Marakkayars consider themselves better than the Labbais. There is, of course, no religious bar to intermarriages between these different sub-divisions, but such unions are rare, and are usually only brought about by the offer of strong financial inducements to the socially superior party. Generally speaking, the pure-bred Musalmans differ from those of mixed descent by dressing themselves and their women in the strict Musalman fashion, and by speaking Hindustani at home among themselves. Some of the Marakkayars are now following their example in both these matters, but most of them affect the high hat of plaited coloured grass and the tartan (kambayam) waist-cloth. The Labbais also very generally wear these, and so are not always readily distinguishable from the Marakkayars, but some of them use the Hindu turban and waist-cloth, and let their womankind dress almost exactly like Hindu women. In the same way, some Labbais insist on the use of Hindustani in their houses, while others speak Tamil. There seems to be a growing dislike to the introduction of Hindu rites into domestic ceremonies, and the processions and music, which were once common at marriages, are slowly giving place to a simpler ritual more in resemblance with the nikka ceremony of the Musalman faith."

Of 13,712 inhabitants of Porto Novo returned at the census, 1901, as many as 3,805 were Muhammadans. "The ordinary vernacular name of the town is Farangipettai or European town, but the Musalmans call it Muhammad Bandar (Port). The interest of the majority of the inhabitants centres in matters connected with the sea. A large proportion of them earn their living either as owners of, or sailors in, the boats which ply between the place and Ceylon and other parts, and it is significant that the most popular of the unusually large number of Musalman saints who are buried in the town is one Malumiyar, who was apparently in his lifetime a notable sea-captain. His fame as a sailor has been magnified into the miraculous, and it is declared that he owned ten or a dozen ships, and used to appear in command of all of them simultaneously. He has now the reputation of being able to deliver from danger those who go down to the sea in ships, and sailors setting out on a voyage or returning from one in safety usually put an offering in the little box kept at his darga, and these sums are expended in keeping that building lighted and whitewashed. Another curious darga in the town is that of Araikasu Nachiyar, or the one pie lady. Offerings to her must on no account be worth more than one pie (1/192 of a rupee); tributes in excess of that value are of no effect. If sugar for so small an amount cannot be procured, the devotee spends the money on chunam (lime) for her tomb, and this is consequently covered with a superabundance of whitewash. Stories are told of the way in which the valuable offerings of rich men have altogether failed to obtain her favour, and have had to be replaced by others of the regulation diminutive dimensions. The chief mosque is well kept. Behind it are two tombs, which stand at an odd angle with one another, instead of being parallel as usual. The legend goes that once upon a time there was a great saint called Hafiz Mir Sahib, who had an even more devout disciple called Saiyad Shah. The latter died and was duly buried, and not long after the saint died also. The disciple had always asked to be buried at the feet of his master, and so the grave of this latter was so placed that his feet were opposite the head of his late pupil. But his spirit recognised that the pupil was really greater than the master, and when men came later to see the two graves they found that the saint had turned his tomb round so that his feet no longer pointed with such lack of respect towards the head of his disciple." [2]

In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Jonagans are separated from the Marakkayars, and are described as Musalman traders of partly Hindu parentage. And, in the Gazetteer of South Arcot, Mr. Francis says that "the term Jonagan or Sonagan, meaning a native of Sonagan or Arabia, is applied by Hindus to both Labbais and Marakkayars, but it is usually held to have a contemptuous flavour about it." There is some little confusion concerning the exact application of the name Jonagan, but I gather that it is applied to sea-fishermen and boatmen, while the more prosperous traders are called Marakkayars. A point, in which the Labbais are said to differ from the Marakkayars, is that the former are Hanafis, and the latter Shafis.

The Marakkayars are said to admit converts from various Hindu classes, who are called Pulukkais, and may not intermarry with the Marakkayars for several generations, or until they have become prosperous.

In one form of the marriage rites, the ceremonial extends over four days. The most important items on the first day are fixing the mehr (bride-price) in the presence of the vakils (representatives), and the performance of the nikka rite by the Kazi. The nikka kudbha is read, and the hands of the contracting couple are united by male elders, the bride standing within a screen. During the reading of the kudbha, a sister of the bridegroom ties a string of black beads round the bride's neck. All the women present set up a roar, called kulavi-idal. On the following day, the couple sit among women, and the bridegroom ties a golden tali on the bride's neck. On the third or fourth day a ceremony called paparakkolam, or Brahman disguise, is performed. The bride is dressed like a Brahman woman, and holds a brass vessel in one hand, and a stick in the other. Approaching the bridegroom, she strikes him gently, and says "Did not I give you buttermilk and curds? Pay me for them." The bridegroom then places a few tamarind seeds in the brass vessel, but the bride objects to this, and demands money, accompanying the demand with strokes of the stick. The man then places copper, silver, and gold coins in the vessel, and the bride retires in triumph to her chamber.

Like the Labbais, the Marakkayars write Tamil in Arabic characters, and speak a language called Arab-Tamil, in which the Kuran and other books have been published. (See Labbai.)

Maralu (sand).--A gotra of Kurni.

Maran or Marayan.--The Marayans are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being "temple servants and drummers in Malabar. Like many of the Malabar castes, they must have come from the east coast, as their name frequently occurs in the Tanjore inscriptions of 1013 A.D. They followed then the same occupation as that by which they live to-day, and appear to have held a tolerably high social position. In parts of North Malabar they are called Oc'chan."

"The development of this caste," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [3] "is interesting. In Chirakkal, the northernmost taluk of the Malabar district, and in the adjoining Kasargod taluk of South Canara, Marayans are barbers, serving Nayars and higher castes; in the Kottayam and Kurumbranad taluks they are barbers and drummers, and also officiate as purohits (priests) at the funeral ceremonies of Nayars. In the latter capacity they are known in those parts also as Attikurissi Marayan. Going still further south, we find the Nayar purohit called simply Attikurissi, omitting the Marayan, and he considers it beneath his dignity to shave. Nevertheless, he betrays his kinship with the Marayan of the north by the privilege which he claims of cutting the first hair when a Nayar is shaved after funeral obsequies. On the other hand, the drummer, who is called Marayan, or honorifically Marar, poses as a temple servant, and would be insulted if it were said that he was akin to the shaving Marayan of the north. He is considered next in rank only to Brahmans, and would be polluted by the touch of Nayars. He loses caste by eating the food of Nayars, but the Nayars also lose caste by eating his food. A proverb says that a Marayan has four privileges:--

1. Pani, or drum, beaten with the hand. 2. Koni, or bier, i.e., the making of the bier. 3. Natumittam, or shaving. 4. Tirumittam, or sweeping the temple courts.

"In North Malabar a Marayan performs all the above duties even now. In the south there appears to have been a division of labour, and there a Marayan is in these days only a drummer and temple servant. Funeral rites are conducted by an Attikurissi Marayan, otherwise known as simply Attikurissi, and shaving is the duty of the Velakattalavan. This appears to have been the case for many generations, but I have not attempted to distinguish between the two sections, and have classed all as barbers. Moreover, it is only in parts of South Malabar that the caste has entirely given up the profession of barber; and, curiously enough, these are the localities where Nambudiri influence is supreme. The Marayans there appear to have confined themselves to officiating as drummers in temples, and to have obtained the title of Ambalavasi; and, in course of time, they were even honoured with sambandham of Nambudiris. In some places an attempt is made to draw a distinction between Marayan and Marayar, the former denoting the barber, and the latter, which is merely the honorific plural, the temple servant. There can, however, be little doubt that this is merely an ex post facto argument in support of the alleged superiority of those Marayans who have abandoned the barber's brush. It may be here noted that it is common to find barbers acting as musicians throughout the Madras Presidency, and that there are several other castes in Malabar, such as the Tiyyans, Mukkuvans, etc., who employ barbers as purohits at their funeral ceremonies."

In the Cochin Census Report, 1901, Mr. M. Sankara Menon writes that the Marars are "Sudras, and, properly speaking, they ought to be classed along with Nayars. Owing, however, to their close connection with services in temples, and the absence of free interdining or intermarriage with Nayars, they are classed along with Ambalavasis. They are drummers, musicians, and storekeepers in temples. Like Tiyattu Nambiyars, some sections among them also draw figures of the goddess in Bhagavati temples, and chant songs. In some places they are also known as Kuruppus. Some sub-castes among them do not dine, or intermarry. As they have generally to serve in temples, they bathe if they touch Nayars. In the matter of marriage (tali-kettu and sambandham), inheritance, period of pollution, etc., they follow customs exactly like those of Nayars. In the southern taluks Elayads officiate as purohits, but, in the northern taluks, their own castemen take the part of the Elayads in their sradha ceremonies. The tali-kettu is likewise performed by Tirumalpads in the southern taluks, but by their own castemen, called Enangan, in the northern taluks. Their castemen or Brahmans unite themselves with their women in sambandham. As among Nayars, purificatory ceremonies after funerals, etc., are performed by Cheethiyans or Nayar priests."

For the following detailed note on the Marans of Travancore I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Iyer, The name Maran has nothing to do with maranam or death, as has been supposed, but is derived from the Tamil root mar, to beat. In the Tanjore inscriptions of the eleventh century, the caste on the Coromandel coast appears to have been known by this name. The Marans correspond to the Occhans of the Tamil country, and a class of Marans in North Malabar are sometimes called by this designation. In the old revenue records of the Travancore State, Mangalyam appears to be the term made use of. The two well-known titles of the caste are Kuruppu and Panikkar, both conveying the idea of a person who has some allotted work to perform. In modern days, English-educated men appear to have given these up for Pillai, the titular affix added to the name of the Sudra population generally.

Marans may be divided into two main divisions, viz., Marans who called themselves Marars in North Travancore, and who now hesitate to assist other castes in the performance of their funeral rites; and Marans who do not convert their caste designation into an honorific plural, and act as priests for other castes. This distinction is most clearly marked in North Travancore, while to the south of Alleppey the boundary line may be said to remain only dim. In this part of the country, therefore, a fourfold division of the caste is the one best known to the people, namely Orunul, Irunul, Cheppat, and Kulanji. The Orunuls look upon themselves as higher than the Irunuls, basing their superiority on the custom obtaining among them of marrying only once in their lifetime, and contracting no second alliance after the first husband's death. Living, however, with a Brahman, or one of a distinctly higher caste, is tolerated among them in the event of that calamity. The word Orunul means one string, and signifies the absence of widow marriage, Among the Irunuls (two strings) the tali-tier is not necessarily the husband, nor is a second husband forbidden after the death of the first. Cheppat and Kulanji were once mere local varieties, but have now become separate sub-divisions. The males of the four sections, but not the females, interdine. With what rapidity castes sub-divide and ramify in Travancore may be seen from the fact of the existence of a local variety of Marans called Muttal, meaning substitute or emergency employée, in the Kalkulam taluk, who are believed to represent an elevation from a lower to a higher class of Marans, rendered necessary by a temple exigency. The Marans are also known as Asupanis, as they alone are entitled to sound the two characteristic musical instruments, of Malabar temples, called asu and pani. In the south they are called Chitikans, a corruption of the Sanskrit chaitika, meaning one whose occupation relates to the funeral pile, and in the north Asthikkurichis (asthi, a bone), as they help the relations of the dead in the collection of the bones after cremation. The Marans are, further, in some places known as Potuvans, as their services are engaged at the funerals of many castes.

Before the days of Sankaracharya, the sole occupation of the Marans is said to have been beating the drum in Brahmanical temples. When Sankaracharya was refused assistance in the cremation of his dead mother by the Nambutiri Brahmans, he is believed to have sought in despair the help of one of these temple servants, with whose aid the corpse was divided into eight parts, and deposited in the pit. For undertaking this duty, which the Nambutiris repudiated from a sense of offended religious feeling, the particular Maran was thrown out of his caste by the general community, and a compromise had to be effected by the sage with the rest of the caste, who returned in a body on the day of purification along with the excommunicated man, and helped Sankaracharya to bring to a close his mother's death ceremonies. In recognition of this timely help, Sankara is believed to have declared the Maran to be an indispensable functionary at the death ceremonies of Nambutiris and Ambalavasis. It has even been suggested that the original form of Maran was Muran, derived from mur (to chop off), in reference to the manner in which the remains of Sankara's mother were disposed of.

The traditional occupation of the Marans is sounding or playing on the panchavadya or five musical instruments used in temples. These are the sankh or conch-shell, timila, chendu, kaimani, and maddalam. The conch, which is necessary in every Hindu temple, is loudly sounded in the early morning, primarily to wake the deity, and secondarily to rouse the villagers. Again, when the temple service commences, and when the nivedya or offering is carried, the music of the conch is heard from the northern side of the temple. On this account, many Marans call themselves Vadakkupurattu, or belonging to the northern side. The asu and pani are sounded by the highest dignitaries among them. The beating of the pani is the accompaniment of expiatory offerings to the Saptamata, or seven mothers of Hindu religious writings, viz., Brahmi, Mahesvari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani, and Chamunda. Offerings are made to these divine mothers during the daily sribali procession, and in important temples also during the sribhutabali hours, and on the occasion of the utsavabali at the annual utsava of the temple. There are certain well-established rules prescribing the hymns to be recited, and the music to be played. So religiously have these rules to be observed during the utsavabali, that the priest who makes the offering, the Variyar who carries the light before him and the Marans who perform the music all have to fast, and to dress themselves in orthodox Brahmanical fashion, with the uttariya or upper garment worn in the manner of the sacred thread. It is sincerely believed that the smallest violation of the rules would be visited with dire consequences to the delinquents before the next utsava ceremony.

In connection with the musical instrument called the timila, the following legend is current. There was a timila in the Sri Padmanabha temple made of kuruntotti, and there was a Maran attached to the temple, who was such an expert musician that the priest was unable to adjust his hymn recitation to the music of the Maran's drum, and was in consequence the recipient of the divine wrath. It was contrived to get a Brahman youth to officiate as priest, and, as he could not recite the hymns in consonance with the sounds produced by the drum, a hungry spirit lifted him up from the ground to a height of ten feet. The father of the youth, hearing what had occurred, hastened to the temple, and cut one of his fingers, the blood of which he offered to the spirit. The boy was then set free, and the old man, who was more than a match for the Maran, began to recite the hymns. The spirits, raising the Maran on high, sucked away his blood, and vanished. The particular timila has since this event never been used by any Maran.

The higher classes of Marans claim six privileges, called pano, koni, tirumuttam, natumuttam, velichchor, and puchchor. Koni means literally a ladder, and refers to the stretcher, made of bamboo and kusa grass or straw, on which the corpses of high caste Hindus are laid. Tirumuttam is sweeping the temple courtyard, and natumuttam the erection of a small pandal (booth) in the courtyard of a Nambutiri's house, where oblations are offered to the departed spirit on the tenth day after death. Velichchor, or sacrificial rice, is the right to retain the remains of the food offered to the manes, and puchchor the offering made to the deity, on whom the priest throws a few flowers as part of the consecration ceremony.

A large portion of the time of a Maran is spent within the temple, and all through the night some watch over it. Many functions are attended to by them in the houses of Nambutiris. Not only at the tonsure ceremony, and samavartana or closing of the Brahmacharya stage, but also on the occasion of sacrificial rites, the Maran acts as the barber. At the funeral ceremony, the preparation of the last bed, and handing the til (Sesamum) seeds, have to be done by him. The Chitikkans perform only the functions of shaving and attendance at funerals, and, though they may beat drums in temples, they are not privileged to touch the asu and pani. At Vechur there is a class of potters called Kusa Maran, who should be distinguished from the Marans proper, with whom they have absolutely nothing in common.

Many families of the higher division of the Marans regard themselves as Ambalavasis, though of the lowest type, and abstain from flesh and liquor. Some Marans are engaged in the practice of sorcery, while others are agriculturists. Drinking is a common vice, sanctioned by popular opinion owing to the notion that it is good for persons with overworked lungs.

In their ceremonies the Marans resemble the Nayars, as they do also in their caste government and religious worship. The annaprasana, or first food-giving ceremony, is the only important one before marriage, and the child is taken to the temple, where it partakes of the consecrated food. The Nayars, on the contrary, generally perform the ceremony at home. Purification by a Brahman is necessary to release the Maran from death pollution, which is not the case with the Nayars. In Travancore, at any rate, the Nayars are considered to be higher in the social scale than the Marans.

In connection with asu and pani, which have been referred to in this note, I gather that, in Malabar, the instruments called maram (wood), timila, shanku, chengulam, and chenda, if played together, constitute pani kottugu, or playing pani. Asu and maram are the names of an instrument, which is included in pani kottugu. Among the occasions when this is indispensable, are the dedication of the idol at a newly built temple, the udsavam puram and Sriveli festivals, and the carrying of the tadambu, or shield-like structure, on which a miniature idol (vigraham) is borne outside the temple,

Marasari.--Marasari or Marapanikkan, meaning carpenter or worker in wood, is an occupational sub-division of Malayalam Kammalas.

Maratha.--Marathas are found in every district of the Madras Presidency, but are, according to the latest census returns, most numerous in the following districts:--

South Canara 31,351 Salem 7,314 Tanjore 7,156 Bellary 6,311