Part 11
In a note on some castes in Malabar which are most likely of foreign origin, it is stated, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "this is certainly true of the Muttans, who are found only in the Palghat taluk and in the parts of Walavanad bordering on it, a part of the country where there is a large admixture of Tamils in the population. They are now advancing a claim to be Vaisyas, and some of them have adopted the title Gupta which is proper to that caste, while a few have the title Ezhutacchan. Some Muttans in Palghat are called Mannadiars, a title also apparently borne by some Taragans. The Muttans follow makkattayam (inheritance from father to son), and do not enter into the loose connections known as sambandhams; their women are called Chettichiars, clearly indicating their eastern origin; and their period of pollution is ten days, according to which test they would rank as a high caste. On the other hand, they may eat meat and drink liquor. Their purificatory ceremonies are performed by a class known as Chorttavans (literally, sprinklers), who are said to be identical with Kulangara Nayars, and not by Attikurrissi Nayars as in the case with Nambudris, Ambalavasis, and Nayars. There is considerable antagonism between the Palghat and Walavanad sections of the caste. Another caste of traders, which has now been practically incorporated in the Nayar body, is the class known as Taragans (literally, brokers) found in Palghat and Walavanad, some of whom have considerable wealth and high social position. The Taragans of Angadippuram and the surrounding neighbourhood claim to be immigrants from Travancore, and to be descendants of Ettuvittil Pillamar of Quilon, who are high caste Nayars. They can marry Kiriyattil women, and their women occasionally have sambandham with Samantan Rajas. The Palghat Taragans on the other hand can marry only in their caste."
Muttasari.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a name by which Kammalans are addressed.
Muttiriyan.--See Mutracha.
Mutyala (pearl).--An exogamous sept, and name of a sub-division of Balijas who deal in pearls. The Ambalakarans say that they were born of the sweat (muttu, a pearl or bead of perspiration) of Paramasiva.
Muvvari.--Recorded [71] as "a North Malabar caste of domestic servants under the Embrantiri Brahmans. Their customs resemble those of the Nayars, but the Elayads and the Marayans will not serve them."
Myasa.--Myasa, meaning grass-land or forest, is one of the two main divisions, Uru (village) and Myasa, of the Bedars and Boyas. Among the Myasa Bedars, the rite of circumcision is practiced, and is said to be the survival of a custom which originated when they were included in the army of Haidar Ali
N
Nadan.--Nadan, meaning ruler of a country or village, or one who lives in the country, is a title of the Shanans, who, further, call themselves Nadans in preference to Shanans.
Nadava.--" This, "Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [72] "is a caste of Canarese farmers found only in South Canara. The Nadavas have returned four sub-divisions, one of which is Bant, and two of the other three are sub-divisions of Bants, the most important being Masadi. In the case of 33,212 individuals, Nadava has been returned as sub-division also. I have no information regarding the caste, but they seem to be closely allied to the Bant caste, of which Nadava is one of the sub-divisions." The name Nadava or Nadavaru means people of the nadu or country. It is one of the sub-divisions of the Bants.
Naga (cobra: Naia tripudians).--Nag, Naga, Nagasa, or Nageswara, occurs in the name of a sept or gotra of various classes in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, e.g., Aiyarakulu, Bhondari, Bhumia, Bottada, Domb, Gadaba, Konda Dora, Medara, Muka Dora, Nagaralu, Omanaito, Poroja, Rona, and Samantiya. Members of the Nagabonso sept of Odiya claim to be descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent rishi. Naga is further a gotra or sept of Kurnis and Toreyas, of whom the latter, at their weddings, worship at 'ant' (Termites) hills, which are often the home of cobras. It is also a sub-division of Gazula Kapus and Koppala Velamas. Nagavadam (cobra's hood) is the name of a sub-division of the Pallis, who wear an ornament, called nagavadam, shaped like a cobra's head, in the dilated lobes of the ears. Among the Viramushtis there is a sept named Naga Mallika (Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of which shrub are believed to be an antidote to the bite of poisonous snakes. The flowers of Couroupita guianensis, which has been introduced as a garden tree in Southern India, are known as naga linga pu, from the staminal portion of the flower which curves over the ovary being likened to a cobra's hood, and the ovary to a lingam.
Nagali (plough).--An exogamous sept of Kapu.
Nagalika (of the plough).--A name for Lingayats engaged in cultivation.
Nagaralu.--The Nagaralu are a cultivating caste in Vizagapatam, concerning whom it is recorded [73] that "Nagaralu means the dwellers in a nagaram or city, and apparently this caste was originally a section of the Kapus, which took to town life, and separated itself off from the parent stock. They say their original occupation was medicine, and a number of them are still physicians and druggists, though the greater part are agriculturists."
For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Viziaram Raz, the friend of Bussy, conferred mokhasas (grants of land) on some of the most important members of the caste, whose descendants are to be found in various places. The caste is divided into three sections or gotras, viz., Nagesvara (cobra) Kurmesa (tortoise), and Vignesvara or Mushika (rat). The rat is the vehicle of the elephant god Ganesa or Vignesvara. It is further divided into exogamous septs or intiperulu, such as sampathi (riches), chakravarthi (king or ruler), majji, etc.
The menarikam system, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is in force. Girls are usually married before puberty, and a Brahman officiates at marriages. The marriage of widows and divorce are not permitted.
The dead are burnt, and the chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies, whereat a Brahman officiates, are celebrated.
Some members of the caste have acquired a great reputation as medicine-men and druggists.
The usual caste title is Pathrulu, indicating those who are fit to receive a gift
Nagartha.--Nagarata, Nagarattar, or Nagarakulam is returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Chetti. In the Census Report, 1891, it is recorded that the Nagarattu "hail from Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram), where, it is said, a thousand families of this caste formerly lived. Their name (nagaram, a city) refers to their original home. They wear the sacred thread, and worship both Vishnu and Siva. They take neither flesh nor alcohol. As they maintain that they are true Vaisyas, they closely imitate the Brahmanical ceremonies of marriage and death. This sub-division has a dancing-girl and a servant attached to it, whose duties are to dance, and to do miscellaneous work during marriages. The caste servant is called Jatipillai (child of the caste).
Concerning the Nagarthas, who are settled in the Mysore Province, I gather [74] that "the account locally obtained connects them with the Ganigas, and the two castes are said to have been co-emigrants to Bangalore where one Mallaraje Ars made headmen of the principal members of the two castes, and exempted them from the house-tax. Certain gotras are said to be common to both castes, but they never eat together or intermarry. Both call themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas, and the feuds between them are said to have often culminated in much unpleasantness. The Nagarthas are principally found in towns and large trade centres. Some are worshippers of Vishnu, and others of Siva. Of the latter, some wear the linga. They are dealers in bullion, cloth, cotton, drugs and grain. A curious mode of carrying the dead among the Namadari or Vaishnavite Nagarthas is that the dead body is rolled up in a blanket, instead of a bier or vimana as among others. These cremate their dead, whereas the others bury them. Marriage must be performed before a girl reaches puberty, and widows are not allowed to remarry. Polygamy is allowed, and divorce can be for adultery alone. It is recorded by Mr. L. Rice [75] that "cases sometimes occur of a Sivachar marrying a Namadari woman, and, when this happens, her tongue is burned with the linga, after which she forsakes her parents' house and religion. It is stated that the Sivachar Nagarthas never give their daughters in marriage to the Namadari sect." Among the gotras returned by the Nagarthas are Kasyapa, Chandramauleswara, and Cholendra.
Naga-sreni.--A fanciful name, meaning those who live in the Naga street, used as a caste name by the Patramela dancing-girl caste.
Nagavasulu.--The Nagavasulu are described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as "cultivators in the Vizagapatam district. Women who have not entered into matrimony earn money by prostitution, and acting as dancers at feasts. Some of the caste lead a bad life, and are excluded from the body of the caste." In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is stated that "Nagavasamu means a company of dancing-girls, and the sons of women of this profession frequently call themselves Nagavasulu. The bulk of the caste in Vizagapatam, however, are said to be respectable farmers." It is noted, in the Census Report, 1901, that "most of the Nagavasulu are cultivators, but some of the women, are prostitutes by profession, and outsiders are consequently admitted to the caste. Their title is Naidu."
Nagellu (plough).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Nagna (naked).--A name for Sanyasis, who go about naked.
Naidu.--Naidu or Nayudu is a title, returned at times of census by many Telugu classes, e.g., Balija, Bestha, Boya, Ekari, Gavara, Golla, Kalingi, Kapu, Mutracha, and Velama. A Tamilian, when speaking of a Telugu person bearing this title, would call him Naicker or Naickan instead of Naidu.
Naik.--The word Naik (Nayaka, a leader or chief) is used, by the older writers on Southern India, in several senses, of which the following examples, given by Yule and Burnell, [76] may be cited:--
(a) Native captain or headman. "Il s'appelle Naique, qui signifie Capitaine." Barretto, Rel du Prov de Malabar.
(b) A title of honour among Hindus in the Deccan. "The kings of Deccan also have a custome when they will honour a man or recompence their service done, and rayse him to dignitie and honour. They give him the title of Naygue".--Linschoten.
(c) The general name of the kings of Vijayanagara, and of the Lords of Madura and other places. "Il y a plusieurs Naiques au Sud de Saint Thomé, qui sont Souverains: Le Naigue de Madure on est un".--Thevenot.
Naik, Naickan, Naicker, Nayak or Nayakkan has been returned, at recent times of census, by the Tamil Pallis, Irulas, and Vedans, and also by various Telugu and Canarese classes, e.g.:--
Telugu--Balija, Boya, Ekari, Golla, Kavarai, Muttiriyan, Odde, Tottiyan, and Uppiliyan.
Canarese--Bedar, Cheptegara, Charodi, Kannadiyan, Servegara, Siviyar, and Toreya. Some Jen Kurumbas (a jungle folk) in the Wynad are also locally known as Naikers.
Tulu--The Mogers, in some parts of South Canara, prefer the title Naiker to the ordinary caste title Marakaleru, and some Bants have the same title.
The headman among the Lambadis or Brinjaris is called Naik. Naicker further occurs as a hereditary title in some Brahman families. I have, for example, heard of a Desastha Brahman bearing the name Nyna Naicker.
Naik, Naiko, or Nayako appears as the title of various Oriya classes, e.g., Alia, Aruva, Bagata, Gaudo, Jatapu, Odia, Pentiya, Rona, and Teli. It is noted by Mr. S. P. Rice that "the Uriya Korono, or head of the village, appropriates to himself as his caste distinction the title Potonaiko signifying the Naik or head of the town."
The name Nayar or Nair is, it may be noted, akin to Naik and Naidu, and signifies a leader or soldier. [77] In this connection, Mr. Lewis Moore writes [78] that "almost every page of Mr. Sewell's interesting book on Vijayanagar [79] bears testimony to the close connection between Vijayanagar and the west coast. It is remarkable that Colonel (afterwards Sir Thomas) Munro, in the memorandum written by him in 1802 on the poligars (feudal chiefs) of the Ceded Districts, when dealing with the cases of a number of poligars who were direct descendants of men who had been chiefs under the kings of Vijayanagar, calls them throughout his report Naigue or Nair, using the two names as if they were identical." [80]
It is noted by Mr. Talboys Wheeler [81] that, in the city of Madras in former days, "police duties were entrusted to a Hindu official, known as the Pedda Naik or 'elder chief,' who kept a staff of peons, and was bound to make good all stolen articles that were not recovered."
In the South Canara district, the name Naikini (Naik females) is taken by temple dancing-girls.
Nainar.--See Nayinar.
Nakash.--A name, denoting exquisite workmanship, by which Rachevars or Chitrakaras are known in some places.
Nakkala.--Nakkala or Nakka, meaning jackal, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Boya, Gudala, Golla, and Mutracha. The jackal is the vehicle of the goddess Ankamma, who is the tutelary deity of the Mutrachas. The name occurs further as a name for the Kuruvikkarans, who manufacture spurious jackal horns as charms.
Nali (bamboo tube).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Nalillakkar (people of the four illams).--A section of Mukkuvans, which is divided into four illams.
Nalke.--The Nalkes or Nalakeyavas are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [82] as "a caste of mat, basket, and umbrella makers, who furnish the devil-dancers, who play such an important part in the worship of the Tulu people. They have the usual Tulu exogamous sub-divisions or balis. They are generally held to be Holeyas or Pariahs. In Canarese they are called Panaras,"
"Every village in Canara," Mr. Stuart writes further, [83] "has its Bhutasthanam or demon temple, in which the officiating priest or pujari is usually a man of the Billava caste, and shrines innumerable are scattered throughout the length and breadth of the land for the propitiation of the malevolent spirits of deceased celebrities, who, in their lifetime, had acquired a more than usual local reputation whether for good or evil, or had met with a sudden or violent death. In addition to these there are demons of the jungle and demons of the waste, demons who guard the village boundaries, and demons whose only apparent vocation is that of playing tricks, such as throwing stones on houses, and causing mischief generally. The demons who guard the village boundaries seem to be the only ones who are credited with even indirectly exercising a useful function. The others merely inspire terror by causing sickness and misfortune, and have to be propitiated by offerings, which often involve the shedding of blood, that of a fowl being most common. There are also family Bhutas, and in every non-Brahman house a room, or sometimes only a corner, is set apart for the Bhuta, and called the Bhutakotya. The Bhutasthanam is generally a small, plain structure, 4 or 5 yards deep by 2 or 3 yards wide, with a door at one end covered by a portico supported on two pillars. The roof is of thatch, and the building is without windows. In front of it there are usually three or four T-shaped pillars. Flowers are placed, and cocoanuts broken on them at ceremonies. The temples of the more popular Bhutas are often substantial buildings of considerable size. Inside the Bhutasthanam there are usually a number of images, roughly made in brass, in human shape, or resembling animals, such as pigs, tigers, fowls, etc. These are brought out and worshipped as symbols of the Bhutas on various ceremonial occasions. [84] A peculiar small goglet or vase, made of bell-metal, into which from time to time water is poured, is kept before the Bhutas, and, on special occasions, kepula (Ixora coccinea) flowers, and lights are placed before them. In the larger sthanas a sword is always kept near the Bhuta, to be held by the officiating priest when he stands possessed and trembling with excitement before the people assembled for worship. [85] A bell or gong is also found in all Bhutasthanams. In the case of Bhutas connected with temples, there is a place set apart for them, called a gudi. The Bhutasthanam of the Baiderlu is called a garudi.
"The names of the Bhutas are legion. One of the most dreaded is named Kalkuti. Two others commonly worshipped by the Bants and the Billavas are Koti Baidya and Chennaya Baidya, who always have Billava pujaris. These two Bhutas are the departed spirits of two Billava heroes. The spirit of Kujumba Kanje, a Bant of renown, belongs to this class of Bhutas. Amongst the most well known of the others, may be mentioned Kodamanitaya and Mundaltaya, and the jungle demons Hakkerlu and Brahmerlu. The Holeyas worship a Bhuta of their own, who is not recognised by any other class of the people. He goes by the name of Kumberlu, and the place where he is said to reside is called Kumberlu-kotya. Very often a stone of any shape, or a small plank is placed on the ground, or fixed in a wall, and the name of a Bhuta given to it. Other representations of Bhutas are in the shape of an ox (Mahisandaya), a horse (Jarandaya), a pig (Panjurli), or a giant (Baiderlu).
"The Bhuta worship of South Canara is of four kinds, viz., kola, bandi, nema, and agelu-tambila. Kola, or devil dancing, is offered to the Bhutas in the sthana of the village in which they are supposed to reside. The Sudras of the village, and of those adjacent to it, assemble near the sthana, and witness the kola ceremony in public, sharing the cost of it by subscriptions raised among all the Sudra families in the village in which the ceremony is held. Bandi is the same as kola, with the addition of dragging about a clumsy kind of car, on which the Pompada priest representing the Bhuta is seated. Nema is a private ceremony in honour of the Bhutas, held in the house of anyone who is so inclined. It is performed once in ten, fifteen, or twenty years by well-to-do Billavas or Bants. The expenses of the nema amount to about Rs. 600 or Rs. 700, and are borne by the master of the house in which the nema takes place. During the nema, the Bhutas, i.e., the things representing them, are brought from the sthana to the house of the man giving the feast, and remain there till it is over. Agelu-tambila is a kind of worship offered only to the Baiderlu, and that annually by the Billavas only. It will be seen that kola, bandi, and nema are applicable to all the Bhutas, including the Baiderlu, but that the agelu-tambila is applicable only to the Baiderlu."
The following account of Canara devil-dancers and exorcists is given in Mr. Lavie's Manuscript History of Canara. "It is their duty to carry a beautiful sword with a handsomely curved handle, and polished blade of the finest steel. These they shake and flourish about in all directions, jumping, dancing, and trembling in a most frightful manner. Their hair is loose and flowing, and, by their inflamed eyes and general appearance, I should suppose that they are prepared for the occasion by intoxicating liquids or drugs.... Their power as exorcists is exercised on any person supposed to be possessed with the devil. I have passed by a house in which an exorcist has been exercising his powers. He began with groans, sighs, and mutterings, and broke forth into low mournings. Afterwards he raised his voice, and uttered with rapidity and in a peculiar tone of voice certain mantrams or charms, all the while trembling violently, and moving his body backwards and forwards." The performance (of devil dances) always takes place at night, commencing about nine o'clock. At first the pujari, with the Bhuta sword and bell in his hands, whirls round and round, imitating the supposed mien and gestures of the demon. But he does not aspire to full possession; that is reserved for a Pombada or a Nalke, a man of the lowest class, who comes forward when the Billava pujari has exhibited himself for about half an hour. He is naked save for a waist-band, his face is painted with ochre, and he wears a sort of arch made of cocoanut leaves, and a metal mask. After pacing up and down slowly for some time, he gradually works himself up to a pitch of hysterical frenzy, while the tom-toms are beaten furiously, and the spectators join in raising a long, monotonous howling cry, with a peculiar vibration. At length he stops, and every one is addressed according to his rank; if the Pombada offends a rich Bant by omitting any of his numerous titles, he is made to suffer for it. Matters regarding which there is any dispute are then submitted for the decision of the Bhuta, and his award is generally accepted. Either at this stage or earlier, the demon is fed, rice and food being offered to the Pombada, while, if the Bhuta is of low degree, flesh and arrack (liquor) are also presented. These festivals last for several nights, and Dr. Burnell states that the devil-dancer receives a fee of eight rupees for his frantic labours."
Of the three devil-dancing castes found in South Canara (Nalke, Parava, and Pompada), the Nalkes are apparently the lowest. Even a Koraga considers a Nalke or a Parava inferior to him. It is said that, when a Parava meets a Koraga, he is expected to raise his hand to his forehead. This practice does not, however, seem to be observed at the present day. The Nalkes, though living amidst castes which follow the aliyasantana law of inheritance (in the female line), follow the makkalakattu law of Inheritance from father to son. The caste has numerous balis (septs), which are evidently borrowed from the Bants and Billavas. As examples of these, Salannaya, Bangerannaya, Kundarannaya, and Uppenannayya may be cited. The Nalkes have a headman called Gurikara, who settles disputes and other matters affecting the community, and acts as the priest at marriages, death ceremonies, and other ceremonials.
Girls are married after puberty, and a woman may marry any number of times. The marriage ceremony is concluded in a single day. The contracting couple are seated on planks, and the Gurikara throws coloured rice over their heads, and ties a turmeric-dyed string with beads strung on it round their necks. Those assembled then throw rice over them, their hands are joined by the Gurikara or their fathers, and the dhare water is poured thereon.
The dead are either buried or cremated. After burial or cremation, a mound (dhupe) is, as among other castes in Canara, made over the spot. Round it, four posts are stuck in the ground, and decorated so as to resemble a small car (cf. Billava). The final death ceremonies (uttarakriya) are generally performed on the fifth or seventh day. On this day, cooked food is offered to the deceased by placing it near the dhupe, or on the spot where he breathed his last. This is followed by a feast. If the ceremony is not performed on one of the recognised days, the permission of some Bants or Billavas must be obtained before it can be carried out.