Part 19

Reference has already been made to certain ceremonies connected with pregnancy, and the early life of a child. There are three further important ceremonies, called Upanayana, Samavartana and Upakarma, concerning which Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes as follows. "Upanayana may be called the Brahmanising ceremony. An oft-repeated Sanskrit verse runs to the effect that a Brahman is a Brahman by virtue of his karmas or actions in this life, or the lives preceding it. The meaning of the term Upanayana is a ceremony which leads one to god, i.e., to a realisation of the eternal self through the aid of a guru (preceptor). This ceremony takes place in the seventh, eighth, or ninth year of a boy's life. As ordinarily understood, it is a ceremony for males only, as they alone have to observe the four asramas. But, in ancient days, it seems to have been performed also by females. Marriage was not compulsory, and a girl might take to asceticism at once. Sita is said to have worn a yagnopavitam (sacred thread). A Brahman is not born, but made by the karmas. In other words, a Brahman boy is, at the time of his birth, only a Sudra, and it is by the performance of the necessary karmas--not merely the ceremonial rites, but the disciplinary and preparatory process in view to spiritual development--that he becomes a Dviga or twice-born. The word Upanayana is composed of upa, meaning near, and nayana, leading. What the youth is led to is, according to some, Brahmaggnana or the realisation of the eternal and universal self, and according to others only the teacher or guru. A Nambutiri Upanayana begins with the presentation of a dakshina (consolidated fee) to the Ezhuttachchan, or the Nayar or Ambalavasi teacher, who has been instructing the youth in the vernacular. The boy stands on the western side of the sacrificial fire, facing the east, and the father stands beside him, facing the same way. The second cloth (uttariya) is thrown over the boy's head, and his right hand being held up, the sacred thread, to which a strap made from the skin of a Krishnamriga (antelope) is attached, is thrown over his shoulders and under his right arm, while he stands reverently with closed eyes. The thread and skin are wrapped up in the cloth, and are not to be seen by the boy. He is then taken to an open place, where the priest introduces the new Brahmachari to the sun, and invokes him to cover his pupil with his rays. The boy next goes to the sacrificial altar, and himself offers certain sacrifices to the fire. Saluting his preceptor and obtaining his blessing, he requests that he may be initiated into the Savitrimantram. After a few preliminary ceremonies, the guru utters in the right ear of his disciple the sacred syllable Om, and repeats the Gayatri mantram nine times. He then instructs him in certain maxims of conduct, which he is to cherish and revere throughout the Brahmacharya stage. Addressing the boy, the guru says, 'You have become entitled to the study of the Vedas; perform all the duties which pertain to the asrama you are about to enter. Never sleep during the day. Study the Vedas by resigning yourself to the care of your spiritual instructor.' These exhortations, though made in Sanskrit, are explained in Malayalam, in order that the boy may understand them--a feature unknown to Brahmans on the other coast. With his words of advice, the preceptor gives the youth a danda or stick made of pipal (Ficus religiosa) wood, as if to keep him in perpetual memory of what would follow if any of the directions be disregarded. The boy then makes his obeisance to his parents and all his relations, and is given a brass vessel called bhikshapatra (alms pot), in which he collects, by house-to-house visits, food for his daily sustenance during the Brahmacharya stage. He proceeds to the kitchen of his own house with the vessel in one hand and the stick in the other. Making his obeisance in due form to his mother, who stands facing the east, he says 'Bhiksham bhavati dadatu' (May you be pleased to give me alms). The mother places five or seven handfuls of rice in the vessel. After receiving similar contributions from the assembled elders, the boy takes the vessel to his father, who is the first guru, saying 'Bhaikshmamidam' (This is my alms collection). The father blesses it, and says 'May it be good.' After the Gayatrijapa, the ceremony of Samidadhana is performed. This is the Brahmachari's daily worship of the sacred fire, corresponding to the aupasana of the Grihastha, and has to be performed twice daily. After another homam at night, the cloth covering the sacred thread and skin is removed, and the consecration of the food is done for the first time. In addition to the skin strap, the Brahmachari wears a mekhala or twisted string of kusa grass. It is doubtless of the youthful Nambutiri that Barbosa wrote as follows at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 'And when these are seven years old, they put round their necks a strap two fingers in width of an animal which they call cresnamergan, and they command him not to eat betel for seven years, and all this time he wears that strap round the neck, passing under the arm; and, when he reaches fourteen years of age, they make him a Brahman, removing from him the leather strap round his neck, and putting on another three-thread, which he wears all his life as a mark of being a Brahman. The rules which were observed with such strictness centuries ago are still observed, and every Nambutiri boy goes through his period of Brahmacharya, which lasts at least for full five years. During the whole of this period, no sandal paste, no scents, and no flowers are to be used by him. He is not to take his meals at other houses on festive occasions. He must not sleep during the day. Nor may he wear a loin-cloth in the ordinary fashion. Shoes and umbrella are also prohibited. The completion of the Brahmachari asrama, or stage of pupilage, is called Samavartana. After a few religious ceremonies in the morning, the Brahmachari shaves for the first time since the Upanayana ceremonies, casts off the skin strap and mekhala, and bathes. He puts on sandal paste marks, bedecks himself with jasmine flowers, and puts on shoes. He then holds an umbrella, and wears a pearl necklace. After this, he puts on a head-dress, and a few other ceremonials conclude the Samavartana. For three days subsequent to this, the budding Grihastha is considered ceremonially impure, and the pollution is perhaps based on the death of the old asrama, and birth of the new. In the Upakarma ceremony, hymns are sung by the preceptor, and the pupil has merely to listen to them."

In conclusion, something may be said concerning the general beliefs of the Nambutiris. All objects, animate or inanimate, organic or inorganic, are believed to be permeated by the divine spirit. Animals, trees, plants, and flowers are animate, and therefore venerated. The sun, moon, and stars are revered on account of some inherent quality in each, such as utility or strength, or owing to their connection with some deity. A god can assume any form at any time, such as that of a man, bird, beast, or tree. The various forms in which a god has appeared are ever sacred. Some animals have been used as vehicles by the gods, and are therefore revered. Cows, horses, and snakes are worshipped. The cow is the most sacred of all animals. The Puranas tell of Kamadhenu, the cow of plenty, one of the fourteen useful things which turned up out of the ocean of milk when it was churned, and which is supposed to have yielded the gods all they desired. So Kamadhenu is one who gives anything which is desired. Every hair of the cow is sacred, its urine is the most holy water, and its dung the most purificatory substance. The horse is the favourite animal of Kubera, the treasure-god. The Uchchaisravas the high-eared prototype of all horses, also came out of the churned ocean. Horse sacrifice, or Asvamedha, is the greatest of all sacrifices. Performance of a hundred of them would give the sacrificer power to displace Indra, in order to make room for him. Snakes are the fruitful progeny of the sage Kasyapa and Kadru. The Maha Sesha, their prince, is the couch and canopy of Vishnu, and supports the world on his thousand heads. But attention to snakes is probably more in the light of the harm which they may do, and propitiatory in character.

Among plants, the tulasi or sacred basil (Ocimum sanctum) is the most sacred of all. It is supposed to be pervaded by the essence of both Vishnu and Lakshmi: according to some legends, it is a metamorphosis of Sita and Rukmini. The daily prayer offered to the tulasi is thus rendered by Monier Williams. "I adore that tulasi in whose roots are all the sacred places of pilgrimage, in whose centre are all the deities, and in whose upper branches are all the Vedas." The udumbara (Ficus glomerata) is also sacred. Under this tree Dattatreya, the incarnation of the Trinity, performed his ascetic austerities. The Nambutiri says that, according to the sastras, there must be one of these trees in his compound, and, if it is not there, he imagines it is. The bilva (Ægle Marmelos) is specially sacred to Siva all over Southern India. To the Nambutiri it is very sacred. Its leaves are supposed to represent the three attributes of Siva--Satva, Raja, and Tama--and also his three eyes and his trisulam (trident). They are used by the Nambutiri in propitiatory ceremonies to that god. An offering of a single leaf of this tree is believed to annihilate the sins done three births or existence. Kusa grass (Eragrostis cynosuroides) is very sacred, and used in many ceremonies. At the churning of the ocean, the snakes are said to have been greedy enough to lick the nectar off the kusa grass, and got their tongues split in consequence. The asvaththa (Ficus religiosa) is also very sacred to the Nambutiris. It is supposed to be pervaded by the spirit of Brahma the Creator.

From the sun (Surya, the sun-god) emanate light and heat, and to its powers all vegetation is due, so the Nambutiri worships it daily. He also offers puja to the sun and moon as belonging to the nine navagrahas (planets). The planets are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Rahu and Ketu. They influence the destinies of men, and therefore come in for some worship. The three last are sinister in their effects, and must be propitiated.

Namdev.--A synonym of Rangari.

Nanchi Kuruva.--A name for Kuruvas, who inhabit Nanchinad in Travancore.

Nanchinad Vellala.--The Nanchinad Vellalas, to the number of 18,000, are found scattered all over Travancore, though their chief centre is Nanchinad, composed of the taluks of Tovala and Agastisvaram. Their manners and customs at the present day are so different to those of the Tamil Vellalas that they may be regarded as a separate caste indigenous to Travancore and Cochin. Like other Sudras of Travancore, they add the title Pillai to their name, which is often preceded by the title Kannaku.

From a copper-plate grant in the possession of the Syrian Christians, dated A.D. 824, we learn that one family of carpenters, and four families of Vellalas, were entrusted with the growing of plants on the sea-coast, the latter being the Karalars or trustees. From this it appears that the Vellalas must have settled on the west coast in the ninth century at the latest. The Nanchinad Vellalas were not originally different from their Pandyan analogues, but settled in the taluks above mentioned, over which the Pandyans held sway during several periods in mediæval times. On one occasion, when there was a dispute about the territorial jurisdiction of Nanchinad between the Maharaja of Travancore and the Pandyan ruler, the leading Vellalas of these taluks went over in a body to the Travancore camp, and swore allegiance to the Travancore throne. They gradually renounced even the law of inheritance, which their brethren of the Tamil country followed, and adopted many novel customs, which they found prevalent in Kerala. From Nanchinad the caste spread in all directions, and, as most of them were respectable men with good education and mathematical training, their services were utilised for account-keeping in the civil and military departments of the State. They must, of course, be clearly distinguished from the Tamil makkathayam Vellalas of Kuttamperur in Tiruvella, who have also become naturalised in Travancore,

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.

Like the Tamil Vellalas, the Nanchinad Vellalas are divided into two classes, Saiva and Asaiva, of which the former abstain from flesh and fish, while the latter have no such scruple. Asaivas will take food in the houses of Saivas, but the Saivas cook their own food when they go to an Asaiva house. Again, though the Saivas marry girls from Asaiva families, they are taught the Saiva hymn by the Gurukal immediately afterwards, and prohibited from dining with their former relatives. This custom is, however, only known to prevail in the south. While the Vellalas in the south reside in streets, their brethren in the north live, like Nayars, in isolated houses. In their dress and ornaments, too, the Nanchinad Vellalas living in North Travancore differ from those of the south, inasmuch as they adopt the practice of the Nayars, while the latter are conservative, and true to their old traditions.

The Nanchinad Vellalas are well known, throughout Travancore, for their thrift, industry, and mathematical acumen. Several families have dropped the designation of Vellala, and adopted Nanchinad Nayar as their caste-name.

Their language is largely mixed up with Malayalam words and phrases. Madan Isakki (Yakshi) and Inan are their recognised tutelary deities, and were till recently worshipped in every household. Villati-chanpattu is a common propitiatory song, sung by members of the goldsmith and oilmonger castes, in connection with the ceremonies of the Nanchinad Vellalas. It deals with the origin of these minor deities, and relates the circumstances in which their images were set up in various shrines. Amman-kodai, or offering to the mother, is the most important religious festival. They also observe the Tye-pongal, Depavali, Trikkartikai, Onam and Vishu festivals. The anniversary of ancestors is celebrated, and the Pattukkai ceremony of the Tamil Vellalas, in propitiation of deceased female ancestors, is performed every year. Stories of Chitragupta, the accountant-general of Yama, the Indian Pluto, are recited on the new-moon day in the month, of Chittiray (April-May) with great devotion.

The Nanchinad Vellalas are chiefly an agricultural class, having their own village organisation, with office-bearers such as kariyasthan or secretary, mutalpiti or treasurer, and the pilla or accountant. Contributions towards village funds are made on certain ceremonial occasions. Their high priest belongs to the Umayorubhagam mutt of Kumbakonam, and the North Travancore Vellalas recognise the Panantitta Gurukal as their spiritual adviser. East coast Brahmans often officiate as their priests, and perform the sacrificial and other rites at weddings.

The usual rule is for girls to marry after puberty, but early marriage is not rare. The maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter is regarded as the legitimate bride. The presents to the bridegroom include a mundu and neriyatu, the ordinary Malabar dress, and very often an iron writing-style and knife. This is said to be symbolical of the fact that the Vellalas formed the accountant caste of Travancore, and that several families of them were invited from Madura and Tinnevelly to settle down in Nanchinad for this purpose. A procession of the bridal couple in a palanquin through the streets is a necessary item of the marriage festivities. The Nanchinad Vellalas contract temporary alliances with Nayar women from the Padamangalam section downwards. Divorce is permitted, provided a formal release-deed, or vidu-muri, is executed by the husband. After this, the woman may enter into sambandham (connection) with a Nanchinad or Pandi Vellala.

The laws of inheritance are a curious blend of the makkathayam and marumakkathayam systems. Sons are entitled to a portion of the property, not exceeding a fourth, of the self-acquired property of the father, and also a fourth of what would have descended to him in a makkathayam family. This is called ukantutama, because it is property given out of love as opposed to right. It is a further rule that, in case of divorce, the wife and children should be given this ukantutama, lest they should be left in utter destitution, only a tenth part of the ancestral property being allotted for this purpose, if her husband leaves no separate estate. If more than a fourth of the estate is to be given in this manner, the permission of the heirs in the female line has generally to be obtained. If a man dies without issue, and leaves his wife too old or unwilling to enter into a fresh matrimonial alliance, she is entitled to maintenance out of his estate. A divorced woman, if without issue, is similarly entitled to maintenance during the life of her former husband. The property to which she may thus lay claim is known as nankutama, meaning the property of the nanka or woman. The nankutama cannot be claimed by the widow, if, at the time of her husband's death, she does not live with, and make herself useful to him. When a widow enters into a sambandham alliance, the second husband has to execute a deed called etuppu, agreeing to pay her, either at the time of his death or divorce, a specified sum of money. The ukantutama from the family of her first husband does not go to the issue of a woman who is in possession of an etuppu deed.

The namakarana, or name-giving ceremony, is performed in early life. Many of the names are unknown among Nayars, e.g., Siva, Vishnu, Kuttalalingam, Subramanya, Ponnampalam among males, and Sivakami, Kantimati among females. The tonsure is performed before a boy is three years old. The right of performing the funeral ceremonies is vested in the son, or, failing one, the nephew. Pollution lasts for sixteen days. The karta (chief mourner) has to get himself completely shaved, and wears the sacred thread throughout the period of pollution, or at least on the sixteenth day. On that day oblations of cooked food, water and gingelly (Sesamum) seeds are offered to the departed. If a daughter's son dies, her mother, and not the father, observes pollution.

Nanchinad Vellala has been assumed by males of the Deva-dasi caste in Travancore.

Nandikattu (bull's mouth).--An exogamous sept of Medara.

Nandimandalam.--A sub-division of Razu.

Nanga (naked).--A sub-division of Poroja.

Nangudi Vellala.--The so-called Nangudi Vellalas, or Savalai Pillais, are found inhabiting several villages in the Tinnevelly district, and differ from other Vellalas in several important points. They say that they are Kottai (fort) Vellalas, who have given up the custom of living within a fort. Nangudi women are not allowed to enter the fort at Srivaiguntam, wherein the Kottai Vellalas live. Within the last few years, marriages are said to have taken place between members of the two communities. The Nangudis have exogamous septs or kilais, named for the most part after persons or deities, which, like the septs of the Maravans, run in the female line. The hereditary caste headman is called Pattaththu Pillai. In olden times, members who disobeyed him were made to run through the streets with a rotten tender cocoanut tied to the kudumi (hair knot), while a man ran behind, applying a tamarind switch to the back.

The consent of a girl's maternal uncle and his wife is necessary, before she can marry. The aunt's consent is signified by touching the tali (marriage badge) on the wedding day. The uncle keeps a light, called ayira panthi, burning until the time for tying the tali, A quarter measure of rice is tied up in a cloth, and the knot converted into a wick, which is fed with ghi (clarified butter).

The news of a death in the community is conveyed by the barber. Before the removal of the corpse, all close relations, and at least one pair of Nangudis from every village, must come to the house. Absence on this occasion is considered as a very grave insult. On the second day after death, an Amarantus, called arakkirai, must be cooked.

A special feature in connection with inheritance is that a man should give his daughters some property, and every daughter must be given a house. The husbands have to live in their wives' houses. The property which a woman receives from her father becomes eventually the property of her daughters, and her sons have no claim to it. Sons inherit the property of the father in the usual manner.

Like the Kondaikatti Vellalas, the Nangudis claim that they had the right of placing the crown on the head of the Pandyan kings. In the village of Korkai, there is a tank (pond) called Kannimar Jonai, because celestial maidens used to bathe there. When one Agni Maha Rishi was doing penance, three of the celestial maidens are said to have come to bathe. The Rishi fell in love with them, and eventually three sons were born. These children were brought up by the Vellalas of Korkai at the request of the Rishi, who represented that they were likely to become kings. According to the legend, they became Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings.

Nannuru (four hundred).--An exogamous sept of Madiga.

Nantunikkuruppu.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a synonym of Vatti, a sub-division of Nayar.

Nanukonda.--A sub-division of Lingayat Kapus, named after the village of Nanukonda in the Kurnool district.

Naravidyavaru.--These are Vipravinodis, who are Jangams by caste. They style themselves Naravidyavaru when they perform acrobatic and other feats before ordinary people, and Vipravinodi when they perform before Brahmans. The name Naravidyavaru is said to be a contraction of Narulu-mechche-vidya-cheyu-varu, i.e., those who receive the approbation of men. One of their most favourite feats is throwing three or four wooden or stone balls up into the air, and rolling them quickly in succession over various parts of the body--arms, chest, etc.

Nariangal (nari, jackal).--An exogamous sept of Vallamban.

Narikela (cocoanut).--An exogamous sept of Balija.

Narollu (fibre).--An exogamous sept of Pedakanti Kapu.

Narpathu Katchi (forty-house section).--A sub-division of Valluvan.

Nasrani Mappilla.--A name, in Malabar, applied to Christians.

Nasuvan.--Nasivan or Nasuvan, said to mean unholy, one who should not be touched, or one sprung from the nose, is the name for Ambattans (Tamil barbers). The equivalents Nasiyan and Navidan occur as a name for Telugu barbers, and Malayali barbers who shave Nayars and higher castes. Navidan is further recorded as the occupational name of a sub-division of Tamil Paraiyans, and Vettuvans.

Natamukki.-- Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Naththalu (snails).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Natramiludaiyan.--A name, meaning the repository of chaste Tamil, returned by some Nattamans at times of census.