Part 18
I am informed that, in the course of an enquiry into a charge of adultery, "it sometimes happens that the woman names innocent men as her seducers. Two courses are then open to them, in order that they may exculpate themselves, viz., ordeal by boiling oil, and ordeal by weighing. The former of these ordeals is undergone, under the sanction of the Raja, by the accused person dipping his bare hand in ghi, which has been boiling from sunrise to midday, and taking out of it a bell-metal image. The hand is immediately bandaged, and if, on examination of it on the third day, it be found unharmed, the man is declared innocent. In the other ordeal, the man is made to sit for a certain time in one of a pair of scales, and is declared innocent or guilty, according as the scale ascends or descends. But these practices do not now prevail." In former days, the ordeal of boiling ghi was undergone at the temple of Suchindram in Travancore. This temple derives its name from Indra, who, according to the legend, had illicit intercourse with Ahalya, the wife of Gautama Rishi, and had to undergo a similar ordeal at this place.
In connection with a case which came before the High Court of Madras, it is recorded [105] that "an enquiry was held into the conduct of a woman suspected. She confessed that the plaintiff had had illicit intercourse with her, and thereupon they were both declared out-casts, the plaintiff not having been charged, nor having had an opportunity to cross-examine the woman, or enter on his defence, and otherwise to vindicate his character. Held by the High Court that the declaration that the plaintiff was an outcast was illegal, and, it having been found that the defendants had not acted bonâ fide in making that declaration, the plaintiff was entitled to recover damages."
In order to mitigate to some extent the suffering caused by turning adrift a woman proved guilty of adultery, who has hitherto lived in seclusion, provision has been made by the Raja of Cherakkal. A Tiyan named Talliparamba possesses a large extent of land granted by a former Raja of Cherakkal, on condition of his taking under his protection all excommunicated females, if they choose to go with him. He has special rank and privileges, and has the title of Mannanar. Whenever an inquiry takes place, Mannanar receives information of it, and his messengers are ready to take the woman away. It was the custom in former days for Mannanar's agents to lead the woman to near his house, and leave her at a certain place from which two roads lead to the house--one to the eastern gate, and the other to the northern. If the woman happened to enter the house by the eastern gate, she became Mannanar's wife, and, if she went in by the northern gate, she was considered to be his sister by adoption. This rule, however, is not strictly adhered to at the present day.
The Nambutiris are stated by Mr. Subramani Aiyar to "belong to different sutras, gotras, or septs, and follow different Vedas. The most important of the sutras are Asvalayana, Baudhayana, Apastamba, and Kaushitaka. The best-known gotras are Kasyapa, Bhargava, Bharadvaga, Vasishta, and Kausika. There are a few Samavedins belonging to the Kitangnur and Panchal gramams, but most of them are Rigvedic, and some belong to the Yajurveda. The Rigvedic Brahmans belong to two separate yogas or unions, namely, Trichur Yoga and Tirunavai Yoga. It appears that three of the most renowned of the disciples of Sankaracharya were Nambutiri Brahmans, who received their initiation into the sanyasasrama at the great sage's hands. They established three maths or monasteries, known as the tekkematham (southern), natuvile matham (middle), and vatakke matham (northern). Succession having fallen in default in regard to the last, the property that stood in its name lapsed to the Raja of Cochin. Out of the funds of this matham, a Vedic pathasala (boarding school) was established at Trichur. A certain number of villagers became in time recognised as being entitled to instruction at this institution, and formed a yoga. Trichur then became the centre of Brahmanical learning. Later on, when the relations of the Zamorin of Calicut with the Raja of Cochin became strained, he organised another yoga at Tirunavai for the Nambutiris who lived within his territory. Here there are two yogas for Rigvedic Brahmans. In these schools, religious instruction has been imparted with sustained attention for several centuries. The heads of these schools are recruited from the houses of Changngavot and Erkara, respectively. To these two yogas two Vadhyars and six Vaidikas are attached. There are also six Smartas or judges attached to these bodies. The Vadhyars are purely religious instructors, and have no judicial duties in respect of society. The Vaidikas and Smartas are very learned in the Smritis, and it is with them that the whole caste government of the Nambutiris absolutely rests."
The names of the Nambutiris measured by Mr. Fawcett were as follows:--
Nilakantan. Bhavasarman. Paramesvaran. Nandi. Raman. Kuberan. Harijayandan. Madhavan. Chandrasekharan. Anantan. Vasudevan. Nambiatan. Greni. Shannan. Damodaran. Krishnan. Sivadasan. Sankaran. Mahesvaran.
In connection with the names of Nambutiris, Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes as follows. "A list of names not current or unusual now among other Brahman communities in Southern India may be interesting. These are--
Vishnu. Kadamban. Gayantan. Chitran. Devadattan. Gadavedan. Kiratan. Bhavadasan. Prabhakaran. Srikumaran. Dattareyan
"The conspicuous absence of the names of the third son of Siva (Sasta), such as Hariharaputra and Budhanatha, may be noted. Nor are the names of Ganapathi much in favour with them. Sridevi and Savitri are the two most common names, by which Nambutiri females are known. There are also certain other names of a Prakrita or non-classic character, used to denote males and females, which sometimes border on the humorous. Among these are--
Males. Females.
Nampiyattan. Nangngaya. Ittiyattan. Nangngeli. Uzhutran. Pappi. Tuppan. Ittichchiri. Nampotta. Unnima. Chiruta.
"Some names in this list are identifiable with the names of divinities and puranic personages. For example, Uzhutran is a corruption of Rudran. In the same manner, Tuppan is the Prakrit for Subramanya, and Chiruta for Sita. Unnima is another name for Uma or Parvati. Nambutiris grudge to grant the title of Nambutiri to each other. For instance, the Tamarasseri Nambutiri calls the Mullappalli Nambutiri merely Mullapalli (house name). But, if the person addressed is an Adhya of one of the eight houses, or at least a Tantri Adhya, the title Nambutiri is added to his name. Again, if there are in a house two Nambutiris, one of them being the father and the other the son, the father whenever he writes, subscribes himself as the Achchan Nambutiri or father Nambutiri, while the son subscribes himself as the Makan or son Nambutiri. In Malabar there were two poets called Venmani Achchan Nambutiri and Venmani Makan Nambutiri, venmani signifying the name of the illam. It is only in documents and other serious papers that the proper name or sarman of the Nambutiri would be found mentioned."
When addressing each other, Nambutiris use the names of their respective illams or manas. When a Nambutiri is talking with a Nayar, or indeed with one of any other caste, the manner in which the conversation must be carried on, strictly according to custom, is such that the Nambutiri's superiority is apparent at every turn. Thus, a Nayar, addressing a Nambutiri, must speak of himself as foot-servant. If he mentions his rice, he must not call it rice, but his gritty rice. Rupees must be called his copper coins, not his rupees. He must call his house his dung-pit. He must speak of the Nambutiri's rice as his raw rice, his coppers as rupees, and his house as his illam or mana. The Nayar must not call his cloth a cloth, but an old cloth or a spider's web. But the Nambutiri's cloth is to be called his daily white cloth, or his superior cloth. The Nayar, speaking of his bathing, says that he drenches himself with water, whereas the Nambutiri sports in the water when he bathes. Should he speak of eating or drinking, the Nayar must say of himself that he takes food, or treats himself to the water in which rice has been washed. But, should he speak of the Nambutiri eating, he must say that he tastes ambrosia. The Nayar calls his sleeping lying flat, and the Nambutiri's closing his eyes, or resting like a Raja. The Nayar must speak of his own death as the falling of a forest, but of the Nambutiri's as entering fire. The Nambutiri is not shaved by the barber; his hairs are cut. He is not angry, but merely dissatisfied. He does not clean his teeth as the Nayar; he cleans his superior pearls. Nor does he laugh; he displays his superior pearls.
Concerning the recreations and pastimes of the Nambutiris, Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes as follows. "During the intervals of Vedic or Puranic recitations, the Nambutiri engages himself in chaturangam or chess. When the players are equally matched, a game may last five, six, or even seven days. Another amusement, which the Nambutiris take a great interest in, is the Yatrakali, which is said to be a corruption of Sastrakali, a performance relating to weapons. This is a unique institution, kept up by a section of the Nambutiris, who are believed to represent the Brahmanical army of Parasu Rama. When, at a ceremony in the Travancore royal household, a Yatrakali is performed, the parties have to be received at the entrance of the Maharaja's palace in state, sword in hand. The dress and songs are peculiar. In its import, the performance seems to combine the propitiation of Siva and Parvati in the manner indicated in a tradition at Trikkariyur with exorcism and skill in swordsmanship. It is generally believed that, in ancient days, the Brahmans themselves ruled Kerala. When they found it necessary to have a separate king, one Attakat Nambutiri was deputed, with a few other Brahmans, to go and obtain a ruler from the adjoining Chera territory. The only pass in those days, connecting Malabar and Coimbatore, was that which is now known as Nerumangalam. When the Nambutiris were returning through this pass with the ruler whom they had secured from the Chera King, a strange light was observed on the adjacent hills. Two young Brahmans of Chengngamanat village, on proceeding towards the hill to investigate the source thereof, found to their amazement that it was none other than Sri Bhagavati, the consort of Siva, who enjoined them to go, viâ Trikkariyur, to Kodungngnallur, the capital of the Perumals. Seeing that the sight of Bhagavati foretold prosperity, the king called the range of hills Nerumangalam or true bliss, and made an endowment of all the surrounding land to the Brahman village of Chengngamanat, the members of which had the good fortune to see the goddess face to face. When they entered the temple of Trikkariyur, a voice was heard to exclaim "Chera Perumal," which meant that into that town, where Parasu Rama was believed to be dwelling, no Perumal (king) should ever enter--a traditional injunction still respected by the Malabar Kshatriyas. At this place, the sixth Perumal who, according to a tradition, had a pronounced predilection for the Bouddha religion (Islamism or Buddhism, we cannot say), called a meeting of the Brahmans, and told them that a religious discussion should be held between them and the Bouddhas, in view to deciding their relative superiority. The presiding deity of the local Saiva shrine was then propitiated by the Brahmans, to enable them to come out victorious from the trial. A Gangama saint appeared before them, and taught them a hymn called nalupadam (four feet or parts of a sloka) which the Nambutiris say is extracted from the Samaveda. The saint further advised them to take out a lamp from within the temple, which according to tradition had existed from the time of Sri Rama, to a room built on the western ghat of the temple tank, and pray to Siva in terms of the hymn. While this was continued for forty-one days, six Brahmans, with Mayura Bhatta at their head, arrived from the east coast to the succour of the Nambutiris. With the help of these Brahmans, the Nambutiris kept up a protracted discussion with the Bouddhas. Wishing to bring it to a close, the Perumal thought of applying a practical test. He enclosed a snake within a pot, and asked the disputants to declare its contents. The Bouddhas came out first with the correct answer, while the Brahmans followed by saying that it was a lotus flower. The Perumal was, of course, pleased with the Bouddhas; but, when the pot was opened, it was found to contain a lotus flower instead of a snake. The Bouddhas felt themselves defeated, and ever afterwards the nalupadam hymn has been sung by the Nambutiris with a view to securing a variety of objects, every one of which they expect to obtain by this means. It is also said that, when the Brahmans were propitiating Siva at Trikkariyur, diverse spirits and angels were found amusing Parvati with their quips and cranks. A voice from heaven was then heard to say that such frolics should thereafter form part of the worship of Siva.
"Engaged in these socio-religious performances are eighteen sanghas or associations. The chief office-bearers are the Vakyavritti who is the chief person, and must be an Ottu Nambutiri or a Nambutiri with full Vedic knowledge; the Parishakkaran who holds charge of the Yatrakali paraphernalia; and the guru or instructor. The chief household divinities of these soldier Nambutiris are Bhadrakali, Sasta, and Subrahmanya. On the evening of the Yatrakali day, these Brahmans assemble round the lamp, and recite the nalupadam and a few hymns in praise of their household divinities, and especially of Siva, the saviour who manifested himself at Trikkariyur. On the night of the performance they are entertained at supper, when they sing certain songs called Karisloka. They then move in slow procession to the kalam or hall, singing specially songs in the vallappattu metre, with the sacred thread hanging vertically round the neck (apiviti), and not diagonally as is the orthodox fashion. In the hall have been placed a burning lamp in the centre, a para (Malabar measure) filled with paddy, a number of bunches of cocoanuts, plantain fruits, and various kinds of flowers. The Brahmans sit in a circle round the lamp, and, after preliminary invocations to Ganapathi, sing songs in praise of Siva. After this various kinds of dumb-show are performed, and this is the time for exhibiting skill in swordsmanship. The exorcising, by the waving of a lighted torch before the face of the host, of any evil spirits that may have attached themselves is then gone through. The performance ends with a prayer to Bhagavati, that she will shower every prosperity. Following close upon this, a variety entertainment is sometimes given by the Yatrakali Nambutiris. This old institution is still in great favour in British Malabar, and, as it has a religious aspect intertwined with it, it is not likely to be swept away by the unsparing broom of the so-called parishkarakalam or reforming age of modern India.
"The Kathakali, or national drama of Malabar, is held in great esteem and favour by the Nambutiris. Most of them are conversant with the songs and shows relating to it, and severely criticise the slightest fault or failure. The Kathakali is more than three centuries old in Malabar, and is said to have been first brought into existence by a member of the ancient ruling house of Kottarakkara. As the earliest theme represented was the Ramayana, the Kathakali is also known as Ramanattam. A single play lasts for eight and even ten hours in the night. Kshatriyas, Asuras, Rakshasas, Kiratas (hunting tribes), monkeys, birds, etc., each has an appropriate make-up. The play is in dumb-show, and no character is permitted to speak on the stage. The songs are sung by the Bhagavatar or songster, and the actors literally act, and do nothing more. The Nambutiris love this antiquated form of theatrical performance, and patronise it to a remarkable extent.
"There are a number of other recreations of an entirely non-religious character. The chief of these are called respectively seven dogs and the leopard, fifteen dogs and the leopard, and twenty-eight dogs and the leopard. Success in these games consists in so arranging the dogs as to form a thick phalanx, two abreast, round the leopard. Stones of two sizes are employed to represent the dogs and leopards, and the field is drawn on the ground.
"The ezahmattukali, or seventh amusement, is said to have been so called from the fact of its being introduced by the seventh Nambutiri gramam of Kerala. It is a miniature form of Yatrakali, but without its quasi-religious character, and is intended to serve merely as a social pastime. The players need not all be Brahmans; nor is fasting or any religious discipline part of the preliminary programme. Sitting round the lamp as at the Yatrakali, and reciting songs in praise of Siva, the players proceed to the characteristic portion of the recreation, which is a kind of competition in quick-wittedness and memory held between two yogas or parties. One among them calls himself the Kallur Nayar and is the presiding judge. There is interrogation and answering by two persons, and a third proclaims the mistakes in the answers. There are two others, who serve as bailiffs to execute the judge's orders. Humorous scenes are then introduced, such as Ittikkantappan Nayar, Prakkal, Mutti or old woman, Pattar or Paradesa Brahman, and other characters, who appear on the stage and amuse the assembly."
The Nambutiris are Vedic Brahmans: their scriptures are the Vedas. It is safe to say that the Nambutiris are Shaivas, but not to the exclusion of Vishnu. The ordinary South Indian Vaishnava Brahman has nothing to do with the Shaiva temple over the way, and takes no part or interest in the Shaiva festivals. Siva is to the Nambutiri the supreme deity, but he has temples also to Vishnu, Krishna, Narasimha, Sri Raghava, Ganapathi, Subrahmanya, Bhagavati, etc. There are said to be temples to Sastavu and Sankarnarayanan--amalgamated forms of Siva and Vishnu. The lingam is the ordinary object of worship.
Like all Brahmans, the Nambutiris believe that the eight directions or points of the compass, north, north-east, east, south-east, south, south-west, west, north-west, are presided over by eight deities, or Ashtadikpalakas, riding on various animals. Indra reigns in heaven and Yama in hell, and Surya is the sun god. All these and their wives are worshipped. Parvati shares adoration with Siva, Lakshmi with Vishnu, and so on. The Nambutiris believe in the existence of evil spirits which influence man, but they do not worship them.
It is said that the Nambutiri has of late been influenced by Vedantism, that wonderful religious idea of the existence of one spirit or atman, the only reality, outside which the world and all besides is mere illusion, and whose doctrine is wrapped up in the three words "Ekam eva advitiyam". (There is but one being without a second).
The Nambutiris call themselves Arya Brahmanar. Their legendary transmigration to Malabar from Northern India is doubtless true. Theirs is by far the purest form of the Vedic Brahmanism to be met with in Southern India. A complete account of the religion of the Nambutiris cannot be given in these pages. The Nambutiri's life is a round of sacrifices, the last of which is the burning of his body on the funeral pyre. When the Nambutiri has no male issue, he performs the putra kameshti or karmavipakaprayaschittam yagams or sacrifices to obtain it. Should he be unwell, he performs the mrittyunjaya santi yagam, so that he may be restored to good health. He performs the aja yagam, or goat sacrifice, in order to obtain salvation. Though animal food is strictly forbidden, and the rule is strictly followed, the flesh of the goat, which remains after the offering has been made in this sacrifice, is eaten by the Nambutiris present as part of the solemn ceremonial. This is the only occasion on which animal food is eaten. Namaskaram, or prostration, is much done during prayers. By some it is done some hundreds of times daily, by others not so often. It amounts to physical exercise, and is calculated to strengthen the arms and the back.