CHAPTER III.

_Lower Canada—Inhabitants—Climate—Soil—Mode of Selling Land—Productions and Prices—Farming near Montreal—Climate affecting Agriculture and Farmers._

Canada originally consisted of one country, and was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791. It was discovered by Jacques Cartier, a Frenchman, in 1535, and continued under dominion of the French until 1759, with exception of a year or two, when it was ceded to the English.

The descendants of the French, after the conquest by the English, were allowed to retain their laws and religion, which so attached them to the British government, that their fidelity remained unshaken during the war with the colonies to the south, which now form part of the United States. In the late war between Great Britain and the United States the population again continued faithful; and their antipathy to the inhabitants of the States seems to be unconquerable.

About two-thirds of the inhabitants of Lower Canada are descendants of the French, who speak the French language, and retain most of their old manners and customs. The rest of the inhabitants consist of all nations, and are chiefly descended from British subjects. The French Canadians profess the Catholic religion; and lands held by Catholics pay one twenty-sixth of the grain produce to the clergy. The exaction, however, seldom extends beyond the wheat crop; and the people of all religions represent the Catholic clergy of Lower Canada as the best disposed and most inoffensive class of men in the province.

The French Canadians are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and are a most unenterprising race of individuals, and lead the same kind of life which their forefathers did upwards of two hundred years ago. They appear to be poor, indolent, and a mirthful loving people. The commerce of the province is carried on chiefly by British subjects. In politics, there is a French and British party. At present the French interest is the most numerous; it will, however, ultimately dwindle away.

The province of Lower Canada lies between forty-five and fifty-two degrees of north latitude, and sixty-three and eighty-one of west longitude, from Greenwich. The climate of America is very different from places of the same latitude in Europe, the degrees of heat and cold being much greater. Although lying considerably farther south than England, Fahrenheit’s thermometer ranges between ninety and one hundred degrees in summer. In winter, the thermometer occasionally indicates thirty degrees below zero, and for six months the surface of the earth is covered with snow. The St Lawrence, which divides the province, runs in a north-easterly direction, and the climate becomes mild as the river is ascended. In the western part of the province, spring commences a month earlier than it does at Quebec, the capital of the district, and the climate is in all respects superior for agriculture.

The climate of Lower Canada is perhaps as healthy as any in America, which may be owing to the length of time the banks of the St Lawrence, where the population chiefly reside, have been cultivated. In newly settled districts, fever and ague, the scourge of America, is frequently known.

The soil, which has been surveyed, is estimated by Bouchette at about 16,000,000 acres, and is said to be inferior sand in the eastern parts, and to improve to the westward. This gradation of soil seems to be pretty general in most parts of North America; but soils of the most opposite character are to be found in all situations, and America is as variable in texture and quality of surface as Britain.

The greater part of the cleared land is occupied by the descendants of the French in narrow stripes, seldom exceeding 100 acres, and often extending miles in length. The tenures are of French origin, and it is difficult to get a good title to land, without it has been disposed of at a sheriff’s sale. A considerable part of the land is held by English tenure, and to such there is no difficulty in obtaining good title-deeds.

A considerable extent of crown lands is still undisposed of, and they are sold by public sale on the first day of every month, in every township where an agent resides. The upset price of the lands varies from 2s. 6d. to 10s. Halifax currency, by which all land in the Canadas are sold. The following are the conditions of sale for 1834:—

“1st, The lands will be put up for sale in lots or parcels of from 100 (or a half surveyed lot) to 1200 acres (or six surveyed lots), as may suit the convenience of parties disposed to bid for the same.

“2d, The lots will be offered at the upset price, as quoted above.

“3d, The lots are to be taken at the contents marked in the public documents, without guarantee as to the actual quantity contained in them.

“4th, The biddings to be made in currency upon the upset price per acre.

“5th, The lots will be sold to the highest bidder.

“6th, The purchase-money to be paid by four annual instalments, without interest. The first instalment or deposit-money of twenty-five per cent at the time of sale, and the second, third, and fourth instalments at intervals of a year.

“7th, The instalments to be paid into the office of crown lands at Quebec, or the treasurer or receiver of rents on his half-yearly tour for the collection of rents.

“8th, If the instalments are not regularly paid, the deposit-money will be forfeited, and the land again referred to sale.”

The chief productions of Lower Canada are wheat, barley, and oats, of inferior quality, which may be partly owing to the climate and the management which the soil is under. For nearly half a century, manure has not been applied to the greater part of the cultivated land, which, after being what is considered exhausted, is allowed to produce a natural sward of grass, on which animals browse during one summer, and it is again ploughed in autumn. Notwithstanding the natural goodness of much of the soil, the crops are of the worst description; and when all things are taken into consideration, it is surprising to find them so good.

Much of the land in the neighbourhood of Montreal, unconnected with the island of that name, is of excellent quality, and, if properly drained and manured, might produce almost any description of crop.

The island of Montreal contains some good soil, of light texture, well adapted for market gardening, a department of husbandry at present highly remunerating. The French Canadians being unwilling to dispose of their lands in the neighbourhood of the town of Montreal, and not likely soon to change their present system of agriculture, the growing of vegetables will, in all probability, long continue profitable, even should high prices induce settlers up the St Lawrence to transmit produce when the communication with Montreal becomes improved, as it unquestionably will in progress of time.

Agriculture produce of all kinds fetches a high price in Lower Canada, which does not seem to afford sufficient food for the inhabitants, and more especially butcher meat. The following inland imports to Montreal are taken from the Commercial List.

_Up to the 6th July_, 1832 . 1833. ————— ————— Pork from Upper Canada, 3978 1149 Lower Canada, 526 1860 United States, 6108 17805 ————— ————— Total Barrels, 10612 20814 ————— —————

Exports by sea from Canada, 1832. 1833. ————— ————— Pork to the West Indies, 2285 1694 to other places, 1177 2586 ————— ————— Total barrels, 3462 4280

These lists, containing only the imports to Montreal and the exports of the whole province, show a considerable balance against the country, which would be greatly increased if the imports of the whole province were included. It is probable other articles would also show an unfavourable balance.

The difficulty of raising produce is unquestionably the cause of its high price, which is not likely to be lowered by other means than importing supplies. The French Canadians, having few wants and strong local attachments, labour cheaply rather than remove to a distance, which, joined to the influx of destitute emigrants from Britain and Ireland, renders wages lower perhaps than in any other part of the American continent. High prices and cheap labour are favourable to investing capital in cultivation; and a skilful and prudent farmer cannot fail of being successful in the immediate neighbourhood of Montreal. Here he will feel the change from Britain less than in any other part of America, with exception of climate, and even the length and severity of winter are said to be agreeable. A considerable extent of capital is required to purchase land in a good situation, which costs from L.10 to L.20 per acre. Land is also occasionally to be had on lease; and when a sufficient number of years, and proper terms are obtained, an outlay of capital in improving the soil would be profitable.

If soil is the workshop of the farmer, and animals and plants his machinery, the climate of Lower Canada is an impediment, seriously affecting plants, animals, and man, which cannot be removed. With six months of winter, the machinery of the farm is suspended half the year. Few plants can be properly matured, and crops, in all seasons, are liable to be injured by frost. Animals require a large supply of dry fodder, as succulent food cannot be provided, and the intense cold reduces them in condition. Man is so long prevented by winter from labouring the soil, and so hurried by the shortness of spring and autumn, that he has not time to prepare it suitably for the reception of crops. To these causes may be ascribed the leanness of animals, the high price of produce, the poverty of the people, and the cheapness of labour.

The climate is too cold for the cultivation of Indian corn, which only occasionally comes to maturity in the most favoured spots. Autumnal sown wheat is similarly situated, and the wheat of the country sown in spring is of the most inferior quality. Fahrenheit’s thermometer having stood twelve degrees below the freezing point at Albany, in the state of New York, on the 29th October, 1833, the cold, in all probability, must have been greater in Lower Canada, which is several degrees of latitude farther north. Accordingly, a gentleman of my acquaintance, who settled in the township of Leeds, stated in a letter, “that misery and famine stared farmers in the face; frost having set in early, all their turnips and potatoes had been destroyed, and, in some cases, also their grain crops.” The condition of the animals is also evidence of the severity of the climate. Sheep and oxen, as seen by me in the months of summer, were mere skin and bone compared with those of Britain, which I attributed, in a great measure, to the cold of winter; and sheep of the Leicester breed, sent from East Lothian, sunk under its effects in the most southerly part of the province.

However much the man of pleasure may extol the winter of Lower Canada for the glorious sleighing it affords—and its boasted advantages seem to be confined to this mode of travelling—the industrious farmer must regard it as an evil, by suspending his operations, and injuring his live-stock. Nature here assists him more sparingly than in warmer latitudes, and he will not live comfortably on cleared land by his own labour, except in the most southerly parts of the province. To clear forest land in most parts by his own exertions, would not reward him for five or six years afterwards, if land was to be had for nothing, and its inferior produce cannot afford good wages to labourers. For the farmer of capital, the neighbourhood of Montreal holds out many advantages. The province is not, however, favourable to farmers who are in search of food and clothing for themselves and families, and still less so for labourers of any description. Both classes must, of necessity, be idle during a considerable portion of the year, and they are not likely to improve their condition by emigrating from Britain to Lower Canada.