CHAPTER IV.

_Upper Canada—Inhabitants—Climate—Soil—Mode of Selling Land, and Prices—Bad Effects of Selling on Credit—Situation of Settlers without Capital—Price of Land in Upper Canada and the Western United States—Price of Land, and Mode of Settlement Injurious to the Province—Suggestions for Improving the State of the Country._

Upper Canada became a separate province in 1791. It is bounded on the east by Lower Canada, and on the south by the river St Lawrence, and the chain of rivers and lakes to the west, the waters of which form the St Lawrence. The boundaries in the north, and in the extreme west towards the Pacific Ocean, are perhaps not accurately defined, and the surface of the province cannot be estimated.

About the time of settling the mouth of the St Lawrence, the French penetrated into Upper Canada, and planted a colony on the river Detroit, where their descendants still reside. At the close of the war, in 1793, when the colonies of North America became independent of Britain, many inhabitants of the United States, who adhered to the government of the mother-country, moved into Upper Canada, where they obtained grants of land. At the same time many disbanded soldiers also received land. In this way parts of the shores of lake Ontario, and lake Erie, and the banks of the Niagara, Detroit, and Thames, were first settled. More recently, many people of Dutch and German extraction have settled in the provinces, as well as subjects of the United States; and there has been a constant stream of emigration from Britain. The population, chiefly found on the lakes and rivers, may amount to about 400,000, the greater part being of British descent.

Upper Canada differs from the lower province in climate, by having a longer summer and a shorter winter; while the extremes of heat and cold, as indicated by the thermometer, are nearly the same in both provinces. The waters of the St Lawrence and lakes, forming the southern boundary of the district, inclining north-east, the climate improves in ascending the waters, till reaching Amherstburgh, in about 42 degrees of latitude. The province, as far as it is accurately known, has not an eminence of sufficient height to affect temperature, and the climate of the different situations may be estimated according to their latitudes. In the most southerly parts, near the head of lake Erie, the length of winter varies from two to three months. Ploughing commences about the first of April; and cattle and horses are allowed to roam in the woods during winter,—a practice which marks the mildness of climate, and also, perhaps, the laziness of the inhabitants.

The climate of Upper Canada is as healthy as the lower province, although the inhabitants are more liable to sickness from the surface not being so well cleared of forest. On my first entry to the country, I thought to judge of the healthiness of situations by the countenances of the inhabitants, and if all of them had been born in the country, this might have been a just criterion. There is something in the climate of America which seems to impart a sallow and seared complexion to the people. It is, however, many years before some natives of Britain lose their florid colour; and I have seen several people retaining their complexion after having resided twenty years in the province, while their children had the general hue of the country. Being unable to judge whether the people had been born in the country, or were lately arrived from Britain, I abandoned the idea of taking the appearance of the inhabitants as an index to healthiness of situation. As I proceeded westward, towards Chatham and Amherstburgh, the complexion of the people became less florid, which I attributed to most of them being natives of the country. I found people afflicted with ague in many places, after having resided years in the district; and from information which I received, deserving of credit, I was led to believe almost every European has a seasoning, or an attack of the ague. The rapidity and severity of the attack, however, depends in a great measure on the situation of individuals being aggravated by fatigue, imperfect clothing, bad food, and a damp house.[5]

Footnote 5:

The following extracts are from the correspondence of my brother Charles, dated Detroit, 7th August, 1834:—

“Through how many exciting scenes have I passed since we parted! For two months tossed upon a stormy sea, with a disagreeable captain, in a crazy vessel!—seen the most sublime of nature’s works, a stormy sea, and such a storm!—stood on deck when not a soul, from the captain to the cabin-boy, expected to live ten minutes! I have experienced delight consequent on deliverance; leaped with joy at the sight of land; admired the fairy scenery of Long Island and the Hudson when the orchards were in full blossom,—and it is a sight of indescribable beauty! I have travelled up the North river, at the rate of fifteen miles an hour, in the finest steam-boats in the world—shot along the railroads—crawled on the canals—been shaken in stage-coaches—and crossed lakes Erie and Ontario, which for magnitude deserve the names of inland seas. I have walked since the 7th of June 210 miles in Upper Canada, 200 in Ohio, 50 in Pennsylvania, 160 in Illinois, and 150 in Indiana and Michigan; in all nearly 800 miles. Some say, the thermometer stood from 95 to 101 degrees in the shade. Often were my clothes as wet with perspiration as if I had waded a river; still I never experienced that lazy, listless feeling I have done during warm weather in Scotland. My appetite was always keen, and it still continues so.”

After residing in Upper Canada, on a second visit, for the space of about 20 days, he writes from Cleveland,—“Do not be astonished at learning I have got the ague. I have had three shaking days,—my appetite is entirely gone. One day I feel quite well, and the next as helpless as a child; and, altogether, the ague is not a pleasant companion. I shall endeavour to bear it patiently.”

From Cincinnati he writes,—“When I wrote about fourteen days ago, I was suffering from fever and ague, and had made up my mind to have it for a companion for some months; but it only stayed with me a week. By medicine and care I succeeded in banishing it, and now feel quite well. It was brought on by carelessness and a desire to travel cheaply. I have no doubt it will have a good effect in making me more careful in future.”

The surface of Upper Canada is remarkable for want of hills, but much of it is considerably undulating; and where this formation prevailed, I generally found the soil of inferior quality. The soil is variable in all districts; much of it is very bad; and it may generally be termed of medium quality. I could only judge of the soil by its natural appearance, which would be improved by cultivation. In all parts of the country, I found sandy soils the least productive; those composed of clay and heavy loam bearing the best crops of every description.

Almost all the writers who have treated of the soil of Upper Canada have represented the kinds of trees which grow on it an index of its quality; but, after extensive observation, I was unable to trace the connexion generally. From the number of mouldering trees with which the forest is strewed, I was led to imagine, generation hath succeeded generation since the beginning of time; and it is an admitted fact, that one description of tree hath frequently been succeeded by a different species over a considerable extent of surface. Under these circumstances, the kinds of trees have often more connexion with preceding events and species than the soil; and I regretted time did not admit of my attempting to investigate the longevity of the trees, and the kinds which succeed each other, or continue without change of species. It is, however, quite certain, that the oak is found occupying exclusively the best and the worst soils of the province, being that of sand, clay, and loam. Were it necessary, I could point out tracts of country in support of what I have advanced, and districts where a change of species of tree takes place without any apparent difference of soil. If the kind of tree is not a criterion of soil, neither is the size of the trees, which often depends on the number of them on a given space.

The quality of soil can only be ascertained by examination with a spade or some such instrument, and which ought also to embrace the subsoil. By such a mode of proceeding a judge of land cannot be deceived. It is as easy to learn to discriminate soils as trees, and both may be examined with the same facility.

The whole surveyed land of Upper Canada is held by English tenure, with exception, perhaps, of some patches on the banks of the Detroit, occupied by people of French descent. There is a register in every township, in which money mortgaged on land must be entered before it is recoverable, and by consulting which every purchaser may ascertain if good titles to an estate can be obtained.

The lands are in possession of the crown, the Canada Company, and private individuals, and may be had at all times to a reasonable extent. The crown lands are disposed of according to the following document:—

“GOVERNMENT LANDS.

“In conformity to instructions recently received from his Majesty’s Secretary of State for the Colonies, the following arrangements for disposing of the waste lands of the crown in Upper Canada, are made known for the information of emigrants and others.

“Except in the case of U. E. Loyalists, and other persons entitled by the existing regulations of the government to free grants, no person can obtain any of the waste lands of the crown otherwise than by purchasing at the public sales, made from time to time under the direction of the commissioner of crown lands.

“These sales will be made on the first and third Tuesday of each month, and will either be continued through the following day or not, as circumstances may appear to the agent to require.

“They will be held at the following places:—

“At Bytown, for the district of Bathurst.

“At Belleville, for the midland district.

“At Peterborough, for the district of Newcastle.

“At York, for the home district.

“At Hamilton, for the district of Gore.

“At London, for the district of London.

“At Chatham, for the western district.

“Besides these general periodical sales, there may be occasional sales by auction in other districts, of such town lots, or other lots of land as may remain to be disposed of; and of these sales ample notice will be given.

“The conditions of every sale by public auction will be as follows:—One fourth of the purchase money to be paid down, and the remainder in three equal annual instalments, with interest at six per cent on each instalment, payable with the instalment.

“The lands will be put up at an upset price, of which notice will be given at the time of sale, and in the previous advertisements which will be published of the lands intended to be put up at each sale; and in case no offer shall be made at the upset price, the land will be reserved for future sale in a similar manner by auction.

“A patent for the lands will be issued free of charge upon the payment in full of the purchase money and interest.

“The regular periodical sales will be held for the first time as follows:—In Peterborough, York, and Hamilton, on the third Tuesday in June next; and in Bytown, Belleville, London, and Chatham, on the first Tuesday in July next; and they will continue to be held at all those places on the first and third Tuesdays in each month, until after the first Tuesday in November next; when such other arrangements as may be made by the government will be announced.

“Information can be obtained respecting the lands to be disposed of in the several districts, by applying to the following gentlemen, agents for the commissioners of crown lands, viz.:

“In the Bathurst district, Mr John M‘Naughton, D.S. Bytown.

“In the eastern district, James Pringle, Esquire, Cornwall.

“In the Newcastle district, Alexander M^cDonell, Esquire, Peterborough.

“In the London district, Roswell Mount, Esquire, Delaware.

“In the western district, Henry John Jones, Esquire, Chatham.

“The commissioner for crown lands, acting also as agent for the sale of clergy reserves, requests it to be noticed, that such clergy reserves as have not been hitherto occupied by authority, or leased by the government, will be disposed of, by public auction only, either at the periodical sales of crown lands or at occasional sales, to be duly advertised; and that the terms of payment for clergy reserves will continue to be as follows:—Ten per cent to be paid at the time of sale, and the remainder in nine annual instalments of ten per cent each, with interest on each instalment, to be paid with the instalment

“Such clergy reserves as have been leased, or occupied by the authority of the government, must be applied for by letter to the Commissioner of Crown Lands, and when disposed of, will be sold by private sale on the same terms of payment as those disposed of by public auction.

“All applications from emigrants, or respecting emigration, not immediately connected with the sale of public lands, are to be addressed to ANTHONY B. HAWKE, Esquire, at York, he being specially appointed by the government to act in that department.

“PETER ROBINSON.

“_Commissioner of Crown Lands’ Office_, “_York, 27th May, 1833._”

By an advertisement dated Taronto, (late York,) 10th April, 1834, the upset price of lands in the Newcastle district is fixed at 10s., and the land surrendered by the Six Nations at 15s. per acre. The same advertisement announces clergy reserves, on condition of actual settlement, ten per cent of the price paid at the time of sale, and the remainder at nine annual instalments, with interest of six per cent on each instalment.

East of Bear Creek—17s. 6d. and the remainder 10s. The township of Chatham, 15s.; Madoc, 7s. 6d.; London, 15s. per acre, Halifax currency.

The mode of disposing of crown lands has been subject of frequent complaint by newly arrived emigrants, and the whole system merits censure. I met individuals who had travelled more than one hundred miles from York to examine lands in the west, and returned again to York to petition and make interest with the authorities to get certain lots put up for sale. When they succeeded, they had to live in idleness for a month until the day of sale arrived, and again travel to the place of sale. Sometimes applications to have lands put up for sale are frustrated, and rather than suffer delay and dance attendance on men of influence, many people have passed into the United States, where a person can go to the land-office of the district and fix on any lot which pleases him. There cash is the only interest that can be employed, and its non-payment the only delay to settlement.

Paying the purchase-money by instalments induces people without capital to become purchasers, who, for the interest of themselves and the community, ought to have assisted others in clearing and cultivating land, until they had accumulated sufficient capital, by saving, to purchase without credit. To the system of disposing of land by credit, much of the wretchedness and poverty of the present Canadian landholders may be justly attributed. The experience of the United States government demonstrated this, and a law was passed to abolish credit on the price of land. How difficult it seems to be for Britain to adopt legislation to the existing age of the world!

The Canada Company possess immense tracts of country, and sell land on terms similar to government, giving credit and drawbacks to induce people to purchase. The price of the company’s land at Goderich is 7s. 6d. per acre, and equal to the price of crown lands in other parts.

Much land is held by absentee proprietors, or the members of the party who sway the councils of the province. It is commonly in the hands of agents empowered to sell. The prices are generally higher than crown lands, and credit unlimited.

The greater portion of British emigrants, arriving in Canada without funds and the most exalted ideas of the value and productiveness of land, purchase extensively on credit, and take up their abode in the midst of the forest, with the proudest feelings of independence, and in the confident hope of meeting their engagements, and becoming fine gentlemen at the end of a few years. Every thing goes on well for a short time. A log-house is erected with the assistance of old settlers, and the clearing of forest is commenced. Credit is obtained at a neighbouring store, and at length it is found necessary to work a day or two in the week for hire to obtain food for the family. The few garden stuffs and field crops, grown the first year, produce little for want of a free circulation of air, and the imperfect manner in which they had been sown. Should fever and ague now visit the emigrant, which is frequently the case, the situation of himself and family, enfeebled by disease, is truly wretched. Hope is, however, still bright, and he struggles through the second year, with better crops and prospects than the preceding one. The third year brings him good crops, which furnish a supply of food for his establishment. During this period he has led a life of toil and privation, being poorly fed and most uncomfortably lodged. But the thoughts of owning so many fair acres has been a never-failing source of joy and sweetener of life. On arrival of the fourth harvest, he is reminded by the storekeeper to pay his account with cash, or discharge part of it with his disposable produce, for which he gets a very small price. He is also informed that the purchase-money of the land has been accumulating with interest. The phantom of prosperity, conjured up by his imagination, is now dispelled, and, on calmly looking into his affairs, he finds himself poorer than when he commenced operations. Disappointment preys on his spirits, and the aid of whisky is perhaps sought to raise them. The hopelessness of his situation renders him indolent and immoral. The land ultimately reverts to the former proprietor, or a new purchaser is found.

To render the situation of an emigrant purchasing without capital more evident, his case shall be illustrated by figures. Suppose 200 acres, which is the common size of lots purchased, at 15s., and that the emigrant has the means of maintaining himself without working for hire, and continues in good health. The three first crops being required to feed the family and obtain necessaries, he may be supposed to have nearly thirty acres in crop the fourth year, if he has been very industrious, but making allowance for stumps, fences, and roads, the actual surface in crop will not exceed twenty acres. At this time, near the end of the fifth year, when the fourth crop is reaped, the purchase-money, and interest on it, will amount to about L.200. The interest of this sum at the rate of the country is L.12, and a burden on the land in crop of more than 10s. an acre, which it cannot meet. In this estimate there is no return made for forest land, which is generally as unproductive of grass as the surface of the sea. It is the quantity of land purchased which operates so unfavourably on the settler. If, in the case chosen for illustration, 50 had been purchased instead of 200 acres, the result would have been very different. It is seldom a person depending on his labour clears and cultivates more than 40 acres in course of his life. Therefore 50 acres is a sufficient extent for such a character to buy, and under no circumstances ought he to exceed 100 acres.

In the case where the purchase-money has been paid, the settler finds himself but indifferently off, and generally indebted to storekeepers. It must, however, be kept in view, that the land which has been cleared is of considerable value, and at the end of the fifth or sixth year, an industrious man may have his property worth much more money than he paid for it.

There is never any hesitation in selling land to a man without capital, as the rights of it are withheld. Every tree which is cut down enhances the value of the property, which is unproductive while they are standing. When a settler absconds after some years’ residence, a case by no means rare, the proprietor derives great advantage from his operations. An agent to a very extensive and wild property, informed me he had sold twenty-five lots of land, consisting of about 6000 acres, and received in all of purchase-money L.300.

If the sketch which I have given of settlers without capital is thought to be overdrawn, from the fact of so many individuals having become prosperous, let it be remembered that land was formerly granted on paying fees of office, and without purchase. The system of selling land on credit, and contracting debt at stores, hath proved ruinous of late years to settlers without capital, who have no other means of extricating themselves than selling their properties.

In almost every district people are found anxious to sell land, and small farms may be bought on cheaper terms than lands belonging to the crown, Canada Company, or large proprietors, more especially if cash is paid. Indeed the necessities of many people are so urgent, and credit so general, that an individual with cash in his pocket may drive a good bargain at all times.

In a country of such diversity of soil, climate, and situation as Upper Canada, the price of land in its territory must be extremely variable, and will be found to run from 2s. 6d. to L.6 per acre. On a general view, it is cheapest in the southern part of the western district, when climate and soil are taken into consideration. Few settlers have located themselves of late years in this part of the country, and trade can scarcely be said to have travelled so far west in Canada. Steam-navigation will, however, soon alter the present state of things in this quarter.

When the extent of unoccupied surface, the extent of soil which is occupied and remaining uncleared, and the tens of millions of acres which have never been surveyed, are considered, the price of Canadian land is extravagantly high, and far above its intrinsic value to actual settlers. Land, like other things, is cheap or dear by comparison, government land in the United States being sold at 6s. 3d. Halifax currency, ready-money, ought to make the British government blush for its policy in Canada. The price of land surrendered by the Six Nations, and covered with forest, is fixed at 15s. per acre, which is more than double the price of government land in the western United States, superior in quality, situated in a finer climate, clothed with luxuriant grass, and without an obstacle to immediate cultivation. The credit, with accumulating interest on the price of land in Canada, is practically an evil to the purchaser and the country. It is population alone which imparts value to land, and a more effectual method could not be devised for preventing a farther influx of inhabitants to Upper Canada, and draining away many of those already settled, than government adhering to the present upset prices of land.

The want of information which could be relied on regarding the United States, and the praises lavished on Upper Canada by interested parties, has drawn a number of emigrants to this district of late years. The stream of emigration has, however, begun to take a different course, and the price of land in Canada will tend to steady its direction. It is a knowledge of the Western States, joined to their pecuniary difficulties, which makes so many farmers anxious to sell their properties. The late rise in the price of land operates as an inducement for enterprising individuals to leave the province, and already some of them yearly take their departure.

But the whole system of settling land in Canada has been bad for many years. The retention of two-sevenths of the land for crown and clergy reserves, retarded improvement of every description, and granting immense tracts to favourites of government increased the evil. Bestowing grants of 200 acres by favour of government, or private individuals, prevented settlers choosing situations for themselves, and they were often directed to unfavourable parts of the country, with a view perhaps of enhancing the value of properties in the neighbourhood. A lot of 200 acres of forest land was too great an extent to grant unconditionally to settlers, without capital, as experience proves they seldom clear 50 acres with aid of a family. From these causes the province may be said to be overrun instead of having been settled,—the evils of a forest-covered surface perpetuated, and the good effects which result from concentration and unity of population effectually retarded.

It might now perhaps be difficult to remedy the state of things. A tax ought to be levied on forest-land above a specified extent, to check speculation in land, and induce large landholders to sell or improve their possessions. Land ought to be sold cheap, in small lots, for ready money, on condition of actual settlement and annually clearing a certain extent. The Canada Company ought to be got rid of, or forced to dispose of its land at fixed prices, and on stipulated conditions. Britain, in legislating for Upper Canada, should do justice to the colonists and the home subjects who may wish to emigrate. But in all likelihood she does not now possess the power of carrying proper views into effect. The land of the province being held at a monopoly price, operates as a barrier to British emigration, and is a tax on the industrious who reach the province, principally for the benefit of absentees.

Much as Upper Canada appears to me to have been misgoverned, her evils are not likely soon to end. The properties of a great portion of the industrious farmers are either mortgaged to storekeepers or capitalists, and almost the whole of the influential inhabitants are interested in land. The men filling official situations generally having large estates, the managers of the Canada Company, and of other extensive tracts of land, will oppose, from selfishness, the introduction of a better system, and endeavour to perpetuate the present state of things. I had little opportunity of judging if the inhabitants are fit to govern themselves. They will, however, find it a most arduous task to get rid of the present party in power, and a separation from the mother country would, in all probability lessen their chance. Upper Canada is likely to separate from Britain in seeking to retain monopolies.