CHAPTER VI

=DAIRY DEVICES=

SHOWING USE OF BUTTER-MAKING EQUIPMENT

The economic value of farm butter made from the product of a few cows is of much more importance than is commonly supposed. For this reason the fundamental principles underlying the making of good butter should be practised as much by the farm woman, making butter in small quantities for the market or the consumption in the home, as by the operator of a large creamery establishment. The quality of butter made on the average farm shows that cleanliness and the proper attention to the simplest details in the making of good butter have been neglected.

_Quality._--The method used in the handling of milk or cream and in making butter determines its quality. The sanitation of the utensils in which cream or milk is handled and the conditions surrounding it during ripening are of the utmost importance. A common practice among some farm women is to put the milk in shallow, uncovered pans which are exposed to dust, flies, and the odors which frequent the pantry and kitchen. Such pans are allowed to stand until the milk clabbers and a thick leathery sheet of cream is formed on the top. Good butter cannot be made from milk or cream handled in this manner. A deep, narrow vessel known as a shot-gun can is recommended for use in ripening cream or milk because it is easily handled, washed and can be covered. These can be bought at hardware stores or mail order houses.

_Utensils._--Convenient equipment for making butter is essential and very inexpensive. It is customary on many farms to churn the cream in an earthen jar with a wooden dasher and stick. Earthenware vessels commonly used are porous and often contain blisters or air bubbles, all of which will absorb milk. The milk sours in these places and gives the vessels a characteristic bad odor. These churns are hard to clean and heavy to handle and should never be used. A wooden barrel churn is one of the best types to use because it is easily operated, cleaned, and handled. Churns which contain agitators and gearing of different kinds should not be used.

A dairy thermometer, which can be bought at any local hardware or drug store at a small cost, is necessary to determine the temperature of the cream.

When there are at least four cows milked, a small cream separator will be a good investment. Where a separator cannot be had, hand skimming is advisable if the cream is properly handled.

_Ripening of Cream._--The ripening of milk or cream is the natural souring which takes place under proper conditions and which gives butter its characteristic flavor. The quality of butter depends, to a large extent, upon proper ripening. Where hand skimming is practised, set separate milkings in cool, well-ventilated places and allow to stand from twelve to eighteen hours for the cream to rise. Skim the cream off with a cup or large spoon, put it into a can which is kept in a cool place at a temperature of 50 degrees Fahrenheit or below. Skimmings from the different milkings are cooled to the same temperature before being added to this stock can. The contents of this can must be stirred each time after adding the cream. When sufficient cream for a churning has been secured in this way the contents of the stock can are warmed to a temperature of 58 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit and in winter 62 degrees Fahrenheit, then allowed to stand in a clean, well-ventilated place for twelve or eighteen hours to ripen. This warming is done by setting the can in a vessel of hot water. Frequent stirring is necessary during the ripening period. Cream properly ripened has a velvety and glossy appearance, with a mild but pleasant sour taste. When hand skimming is not practised the churning will have to be done more frequently to prevent the milk from becoming too sour and giving the butter a bad flavor.

_Coloring the Butter._--The natural color of butter when the cows can get plenty of nature’s food is a soft, straw yellow. During the winter, if it is necessary to use dry feed alone, the butter will lack color which can be supplied by the addition of a harmless coloring matter. The amount of coloring matter necessary to use varies with the season but usually 8 to 12 drops of harmless vegetable coloring to every pound of butter will be sufficient in the winter time. This coloring matter may be bought at most drug stores.

_Churning._--When the cream is ready for churning, rinse the churn with scalding water to cleanse it thoroughly and to swell the pores in the wood. Following this, cool the churn with cold water to prevent the raising of the temperature of the cream when put into the churn. The cream should be poured through a strainer into the churn to remove lumps or hard white specks of cream which may have dried to the sides of the can. Gas will form in the churn during the first few minutes of churning which must be let out by removing the cork at the bottom of the churn. It may be necessary to repeat this operation several times. After the churn has been in operation about 20 minutes, the cream becomes thick and shortly after, very small, mealy granules begin to form. At this point the cream begins to break away from the glass in the top of the churn lid. When this stage is reached, after every four or five revolutions the lid should be removed and the size of the granules observed. When these have reached the size of large wheat grains, the churning operation has been completed. At this point the glass in the top appears clear which indicates that the granules slide off instead of sticking to the top. It usually takes at least 25 minutes to churn good butter. If it takes longer, the temperature of the next cream churned should be raised a few degrees.

_Washing the Butter._--When churning is completed draw the buttermilk off through a strainer to catch small particles of butter. The butter is washed to remove the buttermilk, to improve the flavor, and to keep better. Buttermilk is washed out of the butter and not worked out. The temperature of the wash water should be the same as that of the buttermilk and is determined by the use of a thermometer. This temperature depends upon the condition of the butter; if the butter is too soft the water must be colder, and _vice versa_. In washing butter, water is added and the churn given two or three revolutions so as to turn the butter; after which the water is drawn off and the process repeated several times until the water drawn off is clear.

_Salting the Butter._--The butterworker, paddles, and mold or printer are scalded and cooled in the same way as the churn and for the same reasons. The churn is then drawn near the worker and the butter granules removed with paddle or ladle and placed on worker. The hands must never touch butter for sanitary reasons and because they will give the butter a greasy appearance. As soon as the butter is placed on the worker, one ounce of fine, clean salt to a pound of butter is sprinkled uniformly over the butter.

_Working the Butter._--Butter should then be worked well to distribute the salt through it and to expel the excess water. Butter is salted to improve the flavor, to serve the market purposes and to some degree to act as a preservative. In working the butter, the pile of granules is pressed flat with the lever, and the flattened mass of butter turned over about 12 or 14 times until the edges of butter, when broken, have a granular appearance similar to a broken half-baked potato. Too much working destroys the grain and the edges when broken apart will have a slightly stringy appearance, while too little working gives a streaked or mottled butter.

_Printing and Wrapping the Butter._--The printer is removed from the water as soon as the working has been completed and with both hands it is pressed on the mass of butter until it is packed full. That remaining over the edge is then cut off with a paddle and the print pushed out on a sheet of parchment paper and neatly wrapped. The printing and wrapping of butter cannot be emphasized too strongly, for a good appearance is fundamental to obtaining good markets for the butter. It is very much easier to get a good market for butter packed neatly in parchment paper than it is for that wrapped in a cloth as is the case in so many country homes. It is very important that a good grade of parchment paper should be used for wrapping butter and this can be bought from firms handling dairy supplies or it may be ordered by mail. The brick-shaped mold is used because prints can be handled with convenience and such prints are a standard on the market. A mold of this kind can be purchased from local hardware stores or mail order houses for from $1.50 to $5.00. The placing of the wrapped print in a pasteboard box or carton not only protects the butter from the finger prints but also from dust and dirt. These cartons may be bought from any firm handling dairy supplies. Butter put up in this manner is convenient to handle, attractive in appearance, and is also an advertisement.

_Marketing the Butter._--The appearance of the package determines to a large extent the selling price of butter and every effort should be made to make it as neat, attractive, and convenient to handle as possible. The ultimate end in the making of farm butter is to supply a delicate food for the family and to obtain a profit from the surplus. To do this, it is necessary to create a demand by giving satisfaction to your customers. This can be done by putting up butter superior in quality and attractive in appearance.

BUTTER WORKER

A very useful appliance, and easily operated, making the butter into a close-grained mass without injuring the texture of it. It is made of poplar, triangular in shape, with a corrugated roller. This roller fits in a hole made in a piece of metal which is put across the smaller end of the worker. This worker may be operated by putting it on the kitchen table, or it may be placed on adjustable legs.

[Illustration]

MATERIALS:

13’ maple for bottom, sides, and battens. 3’ 1⅜” × 2” × 5” for roller. 10 No. 14 screws, 3” to fasten the sides on bottom. 8 No. 14 screws, 3” to fasten battens on bottom. 1 piece 28-gauge zinc 4¾” wide × 16” long, for front piece. 8 four-penny box nails to fasten zinc across the front. 1 pan 2” deep × 12” wide × 14” long, to place under worker in small end to catch drippings from butter. Wood glue to fasten handle on roller.

DIMENSIONS:

_Bottom_: 1 piece 1¼” thick × 30” wide in front, 4” wide in back × 26” long. _Sides_: 2 pieces 1¼” thick × 6” wide, × 30” long. _Battens_: 1 piece 1¼” thick × 4” wide × 30” long. 1 piece ¼” thick × 2” wide × 2” long. _Roller_: 1 piece 4” thick × 4” wide × 36” long. _Handle_: 1 piece 5” long.

[Illustration: Taking temperature of cream]

[Illustration: Straining the cream into the churn]

[Illustration: Churning operation complete]

[Illustration: Working the butter]

[Illustration: Moulding and packing the butter]

[Illustration: Cleaning up]

DIRECTIONS:

Taper the bottom piece at one end, using a radius of 31”. Screw the battens (1¼” × 4” × 30”) (1¼” × 2” × 2”) on the bottom, making the holes large enough to fit the heads of the screws. Taper the two sides and nail them to the bottom. The roller is made 36” long and 2” in diameter, measuring ¼” from the end to round the corners. Bore a hole in the end and put the handle on it. Put a small metal pin in the end of roller to hold handle in place. Tack the piece of zinc across narrow end of the worker, making a hole in the centre to fit end of roller. Sandpaper when completed.

[Illustration: Butter Worker.]

MILKING STOOL

A convenient device used in milking, which not only provides a seat for the one who is milking, but a platform with a hoop to hold the bucket. The bench is light in weight which makes it easy to handle. When not in use it may be hung on the wall.

MATERIALS:

2½’ yellow pine. 1 piece of metal, 1” wide × 15” long, to make hoop to hold bucket. ¼ lb. 6-penny nails. Sandpaper and paint.

[Illustration]

DIMENSIONS:

_Top_: 1 piece ¾” thick × 10” wide × 14” long. _Brackets_: 4 pieces ¾” thick × 3” wide × 3” long to support top shelf. 2 pieces ¾” thick × 2” wide × 3” long to support shelf which holds bucket. _Shelf_: 1 piece ¾” thick × 3½” wide × 10” long to hold bucket. _Ends_: 2 pieces ¾” thick × 10” wide × 11⅛” long.

[Illustration]

DIRECTIONS:

Make the top of the stool, using the piece (¾” × 10” × 14”), rounding both ends to a radius of 5”. Make the front and back supports as shown in illustrations 4 and 5. Make the bucket shelf (¾” × 3½” × 10”) next, fastening the two pieces (¾” × 2” × 3”) to the shelf as supports and then nailing the whole to end of stool. Sandpaper the stool and then paint the whole any desired color, preferably white.

CHEESE-MAKING EQUIPMENT

Devices used in the process of making cottage, Neufchatel, and cream cheese are given, accompanied by directions for the use of each of these devices in the making of these cheeses.

_Construction of Drainer._--The rack shown in the figure is 13 inches wide, 13 inches long, and 10 inches deep. The corner posts extend 1½ inches above and below the strips at the top and bottom with the tops rounded as shown in the illustration. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence they may be removed when the draining rack is washed. The materials required are four corner posts 1½ × 1½ inches; 15 strips 1 × ⅜ × 13 inches and 2 strips 1 × ⅜ × 13 inches notched to receive the bottom slats. Pine or poplar may be used for the construction of this device.

[Illustration]

_Construction of Press._--3 or 4 inch poplar boards 18 × 18 inches are used for this press. Cleats are placed on the back of these boards to keep them from warping. The lower board of this press has a circular groove which has an outlet in one side to allow the whey to drain off.

[Illustration: Drawing the curd]

[Illustration: Pressing the curd]

[Illustration: Moulding the cheese]

[Illustration: Necessary equipment used in cheese-making]

_Cottage Cheese._--Cottage cheese has been produced from time immemorial upon the farm. Ordinarily, it is made from milk that has been allowed to stand until it thickens by natural souring. It is then skimmed. After skimming, the rather firm mass of loppered milk is stirred with a large wooden spoon.

Simultaneously with the gentle breaking of the coagulum the temperature of the mixture of whey and curd is gradually raised to about 95 degrees Fahrenheit and maintained at that temperature for five minutes. This mixture should be stirred occasionally but not vigorously. Too much stirring will cause the mass to drain slowly. After this heating process the mixture of whey and curd is poured into the draining cloth; usually muslin or cotton sheeting is stretched over the draining rack, which is especially constructed for this purpose. Such a rack as shown in the illustration can be made very easily and at a small cost. Thirty pounds of milk per rack may be easily handled. Perhaps, in handling the milk in this quantity, it would be advisable to make the rack somewhat longer than the one illustrated. A rack rectangular in shape, 13 inches wide, 36 inches long and 10 inches deep is sufficient. The draining mixture is left undisturbed for half an hour and then the curd is worked toward the center of the cloth by means of a spoon or ladle. The last of the whey is removed by raising and lowering repeatedly the ends of the draining cloth. After draining the curd in this manner the corner of the cloth is folded over to form a sack and the curd is placed between the heavy boards or press. If more pressure is needed weights may be placed on the top board. When the curd has acquired the consistency desired it is salted to suit the taste, and usually a small amount of cream is added. The use of the latter, however, is entirely optional.

The expulsion of the whey by heating hardens the particles of curd, giving a grainy texture to the mass.

_Neufchatel Cheese._--Fresh clean milk is required to make a high-grade Neufchatel cheese. In no case should the milk be over twelve hours old. A slow development of a clean acid flavor is demanded. The addition of a commercial lactic starter in small amounts aids in obtaining curd free from objectionable ferments. Too much starter will produce acid too rapidly and give a rough mealy curd. A very satisfactory product may be secured, if the milk is reasonably clean, without using any starter.

_Starter._--The starter is merely soured milk. In making a home-made starter place a clean milk bottle and tumbler in a pan of cold water and bring same to boiling; remove the bottle, allow it to cool and then fill it with the freshest, cleanest milk available. The bottle should now be covered with a sterilized glass tumbler in order to prevent the entrance of dirt. Allow the milk to sour at a temperature of about 75° F. (room temperature).

Two cubic centimeters of active starter for each thirty-pound can of milk will give good results. After adding the starter the milk is vigorously stirred and warmed to a temperature of 80° F. Rennet is now added at the rate of 30 drops per 100 pounds of milk. Upon a small scale junket tablets may be used for curdling purposes. The mixture, after being thoroughly stirred, is left at rest over night at room temperature, or preferably a little higher. The firm curd is now poured upon the draining rack as with the cottage cheese and allowed to drain for about two hours. Toward the end of the draining period the curd is worked toward the center of the cloth by means of a ladle. The cloths containing the curd are now tied together bag fashion and pressed. The hand-made contrivance illustrated may be used, or merely allow weights to rest on bags of curd over night. The more whey that is removed the better will be the flavor and keeping qualities of the cheese. The curd should drain out and not dry out. Mix in the salt to suit the taste by using a butter worker or a pail and potato masher. Ordinarily about one ounce of salt to four pounds of curd is sufficient. The cheese is now ready to be run through the food chopper and molded. Sometimes it is packed tightly into screw top jars or jelly glasses with tight covers, but usually the cheese is molded into shape and wrapped in parchment paper, surrounded by tin foil to exclude the air. Such molds may be formed by hand closely enough to exclude the air. Butter printers are often used. If the work is done upon a small scale some kind of a hand formed package is probably most economical.

_Cream Cheese._--Cream cheese is made in practically the same way as Neufchatel cheese except that the former is made out of cream testing from 6 to 8 per cent. fat.

More detailed information on the subject of making cheese can be obtained from the bulletins and books suggested for reference reading in the list given in the back of this book.

=APPENDIX=

FUNDAMENTALS IN WOODWORKING

NOTE.--Some of the terms used in the text are explained in this chapter.

_Tenon._--A tenon is a piece of wood shaped like a tongue by dividing the end into three rectangular parts, cutting the sides away and leaving the middle which is shaped to form a tongue.

_Mortise._--A mortise is a hollow cut in to receive a corresponding piece of wood. It is made by measuring the required distances on a piece of wood and boring holes. Take out these portions of wood with a chisel until the mortise is of the required size. Mortise and tenon joints put together in one direction, as those made in the back of a chair, are much easier made than those which are joined in two directions, as in the framework of a stool.

_Mitred Joint._--There are many modifications of this joint but the one most used is the one made at an angle of 45 degrees. Mitred joints are easily made but they have a tendency to shrink, leaving an opening on the inside of the joint.

_Cleat._--A piece of wood nailed down to secure something from slipping. The size of a cleat will be determined by the weight which it is to hold.

_Bevel._--A bevel is a finished edge to a piece of wood. The kind of problem must determine the kind of beveled edge to be made. The blade of the square must be set at the correct angle in making a bevel edge. The most popular bevel is made by setting the bevel square at an angle of 45 degrees.

_Bracket or Brace._--A supporting piece for a shelf or any other place which needs strengthening.

_Panel._--Any area out of level. It may be sunk below or raised above the general face of the surrounding work. They are set in grooves made the proper depth with a plane. Every piece of wood used in panelling must be straight with the face surface of the wood and straight and square with the front edge to make a flat and square panel.

_Groove._--A groove is a furrow or a long hollow. The depth of the furrow depends on the rail it is to hold.

_Taper._--A taper is a graduated point. All parts of the surface must have the same amount of taper to make it equally tight at all points when driven into place. Draw lines on the end of the wood and across the center at equal distances from the corners and with the surface straight on both sides. Care must be taken not to split the corners while making a taper.

_Plugs._--Plugs are pieces of tapered wood used as a stopper, such as in the illustration of Jelly Strainer No. 2. When plugs are to be used, the holes must be made in the wood before the pieces are put together.

“_Penny._”--This term is a corruption of “pound” and used in speaking of different kinds of nails. For example, eight-penny nails means that one thousand of them weigh eight pounds.

_Radius Bar._--A bar pivoted at one end, about which it swings, and having its other end attached to a piece which it causes to move in a circular arc as in the corrugated roller made to work the butter.

_Finishing._--There are two things to be considered in finishing woodwork; the preservation of the wood, and the artistic finish. Three steps are necessary in putting on the finishing touches. First, the surfaces made smooth by the use of sandpaper; the second, staining or varnishing, and the third, polishing.

_Sandpaper._--Sandpaper is not expected to do the work of edged tools. Tool work must be completed before using sandpaper, or particles of dust will get into the pores of the wood which will dull the tools while working with them. Never sandpaper across the grain of the wood. While dressing flat surfaces, use a piece of sandpaper put over a block of wood.

_Stains._--Water, oil, and alcoholic stains are used for staining woodwork. All have their advantages and disadvantages, but for general purposes the alcoholic stains are highly recommended, Johnson’s wood dye being one of the best. A good water stain is made by boiling an extract of logwood, the size of a walnut, with four ounces of water. This is applied to the wood while hot, using a brush or sponge with which to apply it. Repeat the application until the desired color is obtained. Varnish must be used only when a hard, transparent finish is desired.

_Polish or Wax._--Satisfactory results cannot be obtained unless the surface is smooth and well prepared by the use of sandpaper and stain. A cheap recipe for making wax is given as follows:

1 lb. beeswax. ½ pt. alcohol. 1 pt. turpentine.

Break up the beeswax and melt it into the consistency of thick cream in a bowl placed in a saucepan of boiling water. Remove bowl from the fire, gradually beating into the wax the turpentine and alcohol. Store it away in covered jars and warm slightly when it is to be used. Spread a thin layer on a soft woollen cloth and apply it to the surface.

SUGGESTED LIST OF TOOLS

1 Stanley “Bed Rock” smooth-plane, No. 603 $1.60 1 Disston’s Crosscut-saw, No. 9, 22”--10 points 1.15 1 Disston’s Back-saw, No. 4, 10” .95 1 Buck Bros. firmer chisel, 1” .35 1 Buck Bros. firmer chisel, ¼” .20 1 Hammond’s Adze-eye hammer, No. 3, 7 oz. .45 1 Hardened blade try-square, No. 5½, 6” .25 1 Beech Marking-gage, No. 64½, 8” .20 1 Sloyd Knife, No. 7, 2½” blade .30 1 Boxwood rule, 2’, 4-fold .12 1 Barber’s ratchet brace, No. 33, 8” sweep 1.40 1 Miter-box, beech, 12” long, No. 00 .30 4 Brad awls, handled, 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, ½” .15 1 Set Russell Jennings Auger-bits, 4/16”, 5/16”, 6/16”, 7/16”, and 8/16” 1.40 1 Quire sandpaper, No. 00 .30 1 Quire sandpaper, No. 1 .30 ---- Total $9.42

NOTE: Sufficient equipment for constructing all of these devices may be found in average country homes. The work may be successfully done with fewer tools but this list is given as a suggestion for schools.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Farm Butter-making, Farmers’ Bulletin 541, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Butter-making on the Farm, Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga.

Butter-making, Storrs Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn.

Cheese-making, Wisconsin Experiment Station, Madison, Wis., Bulletin 181.

Neufchatel Cheese, Bulletin 78, Storrs Experiment Station, Storrs, Conn.

Cottage or Dutch Cheese and Other Cheese, Oklahoma Agricultural College, Stillwater, Okla.

Conveniences for Handling the Farm Cow and Her Products, Special, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, Washington, D. C.

The Production and Care of Milk and Cream, Special, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Office of the Secretary, Washington, D. C.

A Plan for a Small Dairy House, Farmers’ Bulletin 689, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The Control of Chicken Mites and Lice, Iowa State College of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa.

How to Care for the Little Chick, West Virginia University Agri. Exp. Station, Morgantown, W. Va.

Suggestions on Poultry Raising for the Southern Farmer, Special, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, Washington, D. C.

Oregon Station Trap-Nest, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oregon.

A Simple Trap-Nest for Poultry, Farmers’ Bulletin 682, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

The Organization of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs, Farmers’ Bulletin 562, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Running Water for Farm Homes, A. & M. College, Agricultural College, Miss.

Domestic Water Supply, Bulletin 215 by V. M. Cone, Special, Colorado Extension Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Simple Water Supplies for the Farm, Extension Bulletin 18, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.

INDEX

Barrel, garbage, 74

Bath, shower, 80

Board, ironing, 19

Box, blacking, 61

Box, coal, 31

Boxes, dust, for poultry, 97

Box, wood, 37

Brooder, 98

Butter-making equipment, 99

Cabinet, wall, for kitchen, 17

Chariot, scrubbing, 75

Cheese-making equipment, 108

Cook stove drier, 34

Cooker, fireless, 39

Drainer, dish, 26

House, poultry, 84

Hopper, dry mash, for poultry No. 1, 89

Hopper, dry mash, for poultry No. 2, 92

Mop, dustless, 67

Nests, poultry, 85

Publications, list for supplementary reading, 116

Rack, cheese, 108

Rack, dish, 28

Rack, oat-sprouting trays, 95

Refrigerator, iceless, No. 1, 51

Refrigerator, iceless, No. 2, 55

Roller towel, 63

Screen, house, 49

Screen, sewing, 77

Sideboard, 46

Stand, umbrella, 58

Strainer, jelly, No. 1, 21

Strainer, jelly, No. 2, 24

Stool, milking, 106

Swing, porch, 65

Table, folding canning, 68

Table, vegetable paring, 15

Tester, egg, 86

Tools, suggested list, 115

Trap, fly, 71

Vessel, drinking, for poultry, 97

Wagon, roller tray, 43

Waterworks system, practical, 82

Woodworking, fundamentals in, 112

Worker, butter, 104

Transcriber’s Note:

Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like this_. Those in bold are surrounded by equal signs, =like this=. Final stops missing at the end of sentences and abbreviations were added.

The following were changed:

changed 5” to 5’, dimensions of iceless refrigerator No. 2 added “×” to 15” wide × 15” long added “down” to halfway down the panel. added “with” to “... outside of screen with burlap ...” changed “1.10” to “⅒” in Narrow Ration Food recipe changed “1.10” to “⅒” part meat in Narrow Ration Food recipe