CHAPTER XXVIII

UTILIZING WASTE FOREST PRODUCE

That the production of timber, in common with other trades, has of late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly, owing principally to keen foreign competition, is a fact that is now well known, even to the most casual observer. In face of this it behoves us to ask ourselves the question: Do we utilize to the fullest extent the by-products of the forest and woodland, and so diminish waste, and, at the same time, add to the general revenue of the forest department? By waste produce, or by-products, is meant anything other than wood in the condition in which it is generally used, and includes bark, charcoal, firewood, house and kiln faggots, tar, wood-spirit, turpentine, sawdust, wood-ashes, leaf soil, etc. That much may be done, both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce, is well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the country. Where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the above-named ways, it would be better, perhaps, to reduce them to ashes; for, by so doing, insect and fungus life are lessened, and a valuable manure is obtained, particularly rich in potash, whether for grassland or certain farm or garden crops.

The forest by-products of Great Britain and Ireland are, in the main, applied in the four following ways:—

(1) Firewood. (2) Charcoal, for heating purposes, etc. (3) Bark for tanning. (4) Faggots, for house and kiln purposes.

Although the British forester has usually little or nothing to do with what we might term the volatile products of the forest—tar, pitch, turpentine, rosin, wood-spirit, acetic acid, etc.—nor, indeed, with paper-pulp, it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied.

Tar, which at present is largely imported from the Baltic ports and Southern United States, is obtainable principally from three species of Pinus: _P. palustris_, _P. Pinaster_, and _P. sylvestris_.

Pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils, which is brought about by boiling.

Turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines, principally _Pinus palustris_, _P. sylvestris_, and _P. tæda_.

The common silver fir (_Abies pectinata_) produces the famous Strasburg turpentine, while the larch is the source of the Venice turpentine of commerce.

In New England the whole of the younger sapling pines—stem, branches, bark and leaves—are made into pasteboard, while in other countries the lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value. That the great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot be doubted, and attention has already been directed to this matter in some parts of this country. From the sap of the larch and Scotch firs “coniferin” is obtained, while “rubber,” a valuable product for mixing with gutta-percha, which is very durable, is got from the bark of the common birch by distillation. The value of gorse as a food for horses and sheep is well known even in this country, while in Italy poplar leaves have long been used as cattle-food, and ground fir-needles in Styria for the same purpose.

Dried leaves make excellent litter, and they are valuable as manure. Sawdust, though without manurial value, absorbs liquid manure, and is thus used as an excellent top-dressing. Leaf-mould is well known for its many uses in the garden, as for top-dressing and mixing with other poorer soils in the making of composts for planting. These are some of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be applied, but, as these hardly come within the scope of the forester, special attention will be devoted to the major by-products—firewood, charcoal, bark and faggots—with which the British forester is most intimately associated.

=(1) Firewood.=—Never, perhaps, was the subject of English firewood more worthy of consideration than at the present time, when the price of other fuels is excessively high. Many persons will maintain that in districts where coal is abundant, it is very questionable whether there is any advantage to be obtained from burning wood. We have satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured at less than its present price—firewood price—it is nearly as expensive as coal, as sold previous to the war, in most of our large towns. No doubt, on many large estates where there is a superfluity of unsaleable wood, it would be utter folly not to have it converted into firewood, more particularly as such work gives employment to the woodmen when the inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general outdoor work. But this in itself is no proof that the firewood when prepared and ready for the grate is not as expensive as coal; for, when the rent of ground on which the wood was grown, and the cost of felling and converting it into firewood is taken into account, it will be found nearly as costly as household coal of ordinary quality.

What will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood? This is a question that is not readily answered, the cost of labour in various parts of the country varying so widely. In England, generally speaking, the cutting up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood—that is to say when large knotty pieces, which require the mallet and wedge for their manipulation, are excluded—costs from 5_s._ to 6_s._ Again, how many cords of wood will make a ton of firewood? This is another question that is more readily asked than answered, for the difference in weight between equal-sized logs of, say, oak and birch is considerable. For all practical purposes, however, we may state that about one and a half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood, thus making the cost of preparing and housing the latter about 10_s._ The lowest price at which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was 8_s._, but 10_s._ is nearer the usual price, or about one-half of what is generally obtained for firewood. The cartage of this ton of wood cannot be less than 3_s._ Much depends upon the distance it must be carted, no doubt, but it is usually delivered within a radius of two miles for the price quoted.

The whole matter, therefore, stands something like this: Lowest cost of a ton of wood, 8_s._, cutting same into firewood and stacking, 8_s._; cost of delivery, 3_s._—total 19_s._

It will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable, and every one knows which of the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of heat.

Of course, where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the estate workmen and consumed on the estate, the matter will stand somewhat differently, the two principal items, the cost of preparing and cutting being considerably diminished. In districts where the firewood cannot readily be sold, and would only rot in the woods, it is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood, not only for the saving effected in the coal bill, but also for preservation of the health of the plantations.

In mining districts, or on the outskirts of large towns, there is usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing and other purposes, but in thinly-populated, outlying parts of the country, where the cost of transit is excessive, the actual difference between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be considered.

=(2) Charcoal.=—The following are the chief uses to which charcoal is put in this country: the manufacture of gun and blasting powders, the heating of hall-stoves, cooking, boiling preserves, and the smelting of iron. It is also employed as a filtering and deodorizing agent. Further, it occupies an important place in the making of black paint, ink, ivory- and lamp-black, and is valuable as a horticultural requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting purposes. In the manufacture of gunpowder, for which a highly inflammable quality is required, the three principal woods used are the so-called dogwood (_Rhamnus frangula_), the white willow (_Salix alba_), and the common alder (_Alnus glutinosa_), though not infrequently the hazel, chestnut and our native _Rhamnus catharticus_ are substituted.

Charcoal produced from the dogwood is, however, preferred to any other, as this forms a very explosive powder, used for military small-arms and for sporting purposes. For this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch in diameter, and, if possible, when not more than of ten years’ growth.

Although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of charcoal, yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning is to be recommended for general estate purposes. The manufacture of charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this book, it need not be repeated here. It should be remembered that small wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger size, not only because the former requires little or no cutting and splitting, but for the main reason that it can be procured at less cost, and produces more charcoal, weight for weight. Even at the present low price of charcoal—about 1_s._ per bushel—there is a fair profit attached to the making of it, as will be seen from the following figures, which may be taken as fairly representative. A cord of ordinary mixed wood, which should measure, after being stacked, 12 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. high, will usually, when properly burned, yield 35 bushels of charcoal, and this, at the low price of 10_d._ will realize 29_s._ 2_d._ The cost of cutting this cord of wood, which is generally performed by contract, will be at the least 5_s._, and that of burning 7_s._; thus leaving a clear profit of 17_s._ 2_d._ per cord for the wood.

Even roots are made into charcoal, and we have seen whole woods grubbed up free of expense, the roots being given in return for the labour; but such work is usually performed during the winter, when labour is at a discount. Pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as hardwood, but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit of from 8_s._ to 10_s._ per cord of wood.

=(3) Bark.=—In the past, the annual home supply of bark was estimated at about 300,000 tons, but, in addition to this some 30,000 tons were imported from the Continent; but of late years, owing to the employment of chemical substitutes, the amount used is much smaller. For tanning purposes, oak, and occasionally larch, bark is principally in use in this country, though both willow and alder are largely used for the same purpose in various countries, more especially in Russia. Although not at present a valuable product, a small margin of profit, even at the present low price, will accrue through careful and judicious management of the bark crop. Of this we are fully convinced. It is, perhaps, not so well known as it should be that of our two varieties of oak, _Quercus Robur pedunculata_ and _Q. R. sessiliflora_—the former contains 15 and the latter only 13 per cent. of tannin. The branches, too, down to an inch in diameter, contain a relatively higher proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem.

The stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a separate paper, nothing further need be said of these here.

=(4) Faggots.=—These are made of the smaller branches or spray, the remains of charcoal wood, etc., and tied into bundles similar in size to a sheaf of wheat. They are either left lying on the ground or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after being made, previous to being stacked, as they always are for about six months before being used. In thinning a woodland the faggots are usually bound up by contract at 4_s._ 6_d._ per hundred, except when the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked, when another shilling is added. When stacked and dry they realize about 16_s._ per hundred in the wood, thus giving a clear profit of 11_s._ 6_d._, if we deduct 4_s._ 6_d._, for binding, per hundred.

In England the demand for these faggots is considerable, they being used either for kiln purposes, or, when chopped up into smaller bundles, for fire-lighting. These latter are about 9 in. long, and half that in diameter, and are bound tightly round the centre with tarred rope. Previous to the war they were sold at 3_s._ 6_d._ per hundred.

This is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous spray and branches. Brush or kiln faggots, which are largely used for brick-burning, consist of all refuse woodland scrub, and when tied up and dry can be sold at from 5_s._ to 6_s._ per hundred for the brick-kilns. They are made by contract at 2_s._ 6_d._ per hundred. By the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product, every twig and branch is carefully gathered together, and the woodlands are thus kept in a neat and healthy condition.

=Minor Products.=—In addition to firewood, charcoal, faggots, etc., which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and woodland, there are other minor products, such as are to be met with largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent, which will repay the cost of singling out from amongst the above. These may include flower-stakes, tool-handles, walking-sticks, barrel-hoops, chisel-rods, etc., all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and from which considerable profits are realized.

In cutting the coppice wood, the longest and straightest poles are selected for hop-stakes, the next size for bean stakes, pea-boughs, etc., and so on until every part of the wood is utilized.

Leaf soil, too, sells readily at 5_s._ per cart load—indeed, near large towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply. In all cases, however, it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable soil from the woodlands, even at the high price offered.

Half-decayed leaves, too, are much sought after where market gardening is largely carried on, being used to form forcing-beds, and to preserve plants and roots from severe frost.