CHAPTER XXXIV

AFFORESTING WASTE LANDS AND THE FINANCIAL RETURNS THEREFROM

Now that the Government is being urged seriously to consider the question of afforestation, it may be opportune on my part, as one of the earliest writers on the subject, to briefly recall what has already been done in this matter, and to offer some remarks on planting waste lands, with special reference to cost and the financial returns therefrom.

For the past thirty years I have not failed to urge on the State and private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country, in order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad. As stated elsewhere, when we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is only a little over 3,029,000 acres, that fully 15,000,000 acres of waste lands exist, and that we annually import over 10,000,000 tons of timber, at a cost of about £25,000,000, the necessity for an increased area of woodlands, so that a portion at least of this vast sum may be kept at home, will be apparent to all, and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent, and outside supplies are being rigidly conserved, while our home demands are ever on the increase. England being, so to speak, a residential country, the retention of a certain amount of heath, mountain and common lands, for the purpose of deer forests, grouse moors, game coverts and golfing links is imperative, and will considerably reduce the acreage of land available for afforesting purposes. But I think that I am well within bounds in alloting out of the 15,000,000 acres of waste land 1,000,000 to afforesting and 14,000,000 to game preserves, deer forests and rough pasture.

Having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in England and Scotland, and some of the vast tracts of bog land in Ireland (the latter extending to fully one million acres), I have carefully computed that of land up to 1,200 feet altitude, where timber would grow perfectly well, about 9,000,000 acres are available for afforesting purposes. As far as I have been able to find out, the average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under 3_s_. per acre, and I am quite confident that any land which does not bring in at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber.

It is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property, the owners of which, even could they afford it, have little inclination to sink, for a period of say twenty years, the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations. Equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of management many plantations in this country have been wrongly formed—in so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the results being that financially speaking the woods are a failure, and proprietors in consequence fight shy of further planting operations. I have examined and reported on several of such woods in various parts of the country, one of the most noticeable being in Nottinghamshire, where a large area of ground was planted with a crop of oak, for which tree the soil was quite unsuitable, the result being that over the whole ground the average production of timber per tree was under 10 cubic feet in sixty years. When pressing home the question of woodland extension I have frequently been confronted by the argument that past experience does not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, but let us hope that it will be remedied in the near future by the better education of our foresters and by greater attention being given to the relation of trees and soil.

With the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting operations, the question naturally arises: What is the most feasible way of overcoming the difficulty?

In answer, and without the slightest hesitation, I would say that the State should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate of 40,000 acres annually for a period of twenty-five years. Such lands could, in England, Scotland and Wales, be gradually and cheaply acquired by the State, while in Ireland there are vast tracts of peat bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the Government at the present time at a small cost per acre. Taking the British Isles as a whole, the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an annual rental of about 3_s._ per acre, or 40_s._ per acre for purchase. On the Gwydyr Estate, Carnarvonshire, 7,412 acres of land, described as rough grazing and sheep walk, were lately sold by public auction for £15,670, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. I have little faith either in the State advancing money to landed proprietors towards afforesting, or in municipalities coming to the front as planters of woodlands. The State would be the best custodian of forest property for the simple reason that the State only can readily acquire the needed land in sufficient quantity and on the best terms, and I am fully convinced that plantations formed under Government supervision will, in an economic sense at least, be far more successful than those planted either by private persons or public bodies. Again, the continuity of ownership under such a scheme, together with the ample resources guaranteed by State control, would both largely contribute towards a successful issue in such an undertaking.

The difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice, but from personal experience of similar work in Scotland and Wales I anticipate little difficulty in that way. In these cases, where a good deal of the work was carried out by contract, the workmen gladly walked to and from the adjoining villages each day, often a distance of three or four miles, bringing their midday meal with them, which was heated or cooked on the ground. Then, as the plantations increase in age and size, and sawmills are required, the ever-increasing industry so created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions, just as we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts.

After careful computation I have no hesitation in saying that the area of plantations in the United Kingdom could at once be doubled by the planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over 2_s._ per acre per year of rental, with infinite benefit to the country generally and a vast increase in the value of land both to the owner and farmer who cultivates it. In the matter of afforesting, a grain of practice is worth a ton of theory, and as I have personally supervised every operation, from marking out the plantation boundary on the exposed hillside, to draining, fencing, planting, thinning and disposing of the produce, my opinions on the question are at least worthy of consideration.

=The Approaching Scarcity of Timber.=—Than timber no article is probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation, entering extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry. For England, therefore, with an ever-increasing import, the possibility of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety, more particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously cripple the trade of the country. The following table, as reported to the Washington Bureau of Manufactures, will show at a glance the annual imports of timber of the principal countries of Europe:—

England 16,342,600 cub. yds. Germany 11,766,667 ” France 8,496,300 ” Belgium 1,897,777 ” Italy 915,148 ” Denmark 849,630 ” Spain 392,222 ” Switzerland 313,778 ”

In face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the Government will act promptly in the matter, remembering that no scheme of afforesting, however extensive or well ordered, can bring the necessary relief for at least forty years after its inception. For all this, and in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine, little or nothing has been done, save the holding of meetings by the Board of Agriculture and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in Scotland.

To sum up briefly, the situation is this:—England’s imports before the war rapidly increased from a trifle under 3¼ million loads in 1864 to fully 10 million loads in 1906, thus showing an increment of fully 7 million loads in forty-two years.

Most European countries have large internal supplies of timber, so that, by a system of conserving and protective tariffs, the pinch of want would not be felt severely for years to come. But not so England, which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad.

According to the Secretary of the Agricultural Department of Washington, the area of forests in the United States is 700 million acres, but even now the States are more or less dependent on Canada, and actually receive the entire surplus from that country. But regarding the United States, ex-President Roosevelt said: “If the present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing to offset it, a timber famine in the future is inevitable. Remember that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in time; but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying the growth of trees necessary to relieve it.” Again, the late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had vast forests both in Sweden and Nova Scotia, told me that in twenty-five years neither the United States nor Canada will have much timber left, while Sweden and Finland are already played out. “I am also of opinion,” he said, “that during the next twenty-five years timber will be double its present price, and that it will not only pay to plant land valued at 3_s._ per acre, but that worth 20_s._ per acre.” These are no idle words, but the records of those who know well what they are talking about; neither are the writers in any sense pessimists. With all these warnings from men whose business it is to study the question and who are fully qualified to advance an opinion, surely it is time that we took up seriously the question of afforestation.

It may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions will partly fill up the gap, but this is not the case. Indian timber, principally teak, is not in request to any appreciable extent, while the great African forests are hardwoods, and as a rule unsuited to our wants. The forests of South America are on a par with those of India and Africa, while China and Japan, as also Australia, require more timber than they possess.

=Cost of suitable Land for Afforesting.=—When in the past the question of afforesting has been brought forward, the usual outcry has been that suitable land is too expensive to buy. But this argument will no longer suffice, for, as I have before pointed out, excellent land for the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in considerable quantity at about £2 per acre. Through the kindness of Lord Ancaster’s estate agent, I have been allowed to look over the sale contracts of several parts of the Gwydyr Estate, in Carnarvonshire, and from these I find that 7,412 acres were disposed of, at an average price of £2 2_s._ 3_d._ per acre. The ground was excellent for the production of timber, as the larch on other adjoining lands clearly evidenced. Again the Crown recently purchased 12,500 acres in Scotland at the modest rental of about £2 per acre. Other instances could be quoted, but the above suffice to show that land in every way suited for profitable tree planting can be bought at probably less than £2 per acre.

It is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private property, the owners of which, even if they could afford it, have little inclination to sink for a period of, say, twenty-five years the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of plantations. But all this would be obviated by State ownership of the woodlands. Private individuals, or, indeed, public bodies, labour under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation, not the least, as before stated, being the quarter of a century required before the money expended in planting can be even partially recovered, while a systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first necessities to successful timber culture. It is therefore preferable in every way that the Government should take up the question of tree planting on a large scale, the necessary land being available at a moderate cost per acre.

=Cost of Forming Plantations.=—This will vary greatly with the manner in which the work is carried out, the particular district of the country, nature of soil and rate of wages paid, as also whether fencing and draining have to be engaged in. The difference in cost between “notch” and “pit” planting is very considerable, and the fact that the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds throughout Scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on Scottish plantations. Thus at Grantown, Strathspey, the Countess of Seafield’s estate, Mr. Thomson, the very capable wood manager, has planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of 20,000 acres of woodlands, at a cost, including fencing, of rather under £2 per acre. In England, however, where, for various reasons, pit planting is adopted, and larger plants are used, the cost varies from £5 to £6 per acre. For all practical purposes, however, the cost of forming plantations may be put down at, say, £5 per acre, as an average taken from the following figures will show:—

ENGLAND AND WALES.

£ _s._ _d._ Yorkshire, at 600 ft. altitude, cost of planting and fencing per acre 4 18 9 Kent, fencing and planting ” 6 3 0 Lincolnshire ” ” ” 8 0 0 Gloucestershire ” ” ” 7 10 0 Carnarvonshire ” ” ” 5 2 0

SCOTLAND.

Inverness-shire, Glengloy Estate, 800 ft. altitude, cost of fencing and planting per acre 3 10 0 Ross-shire, up to 1,200 ft. altitude, cost of fencing and planting per acre 2 10 0 Perthshire (planting only) ” 2 10 0 Blair Athol, 3,665 acres, fencing and planting ” 2 10 0 Grantown, Strathspey, fencing and planting ” 2 0 0

IRELAND.

Wicklow, 700-900 ft. altitude, fencing and planting per acre 4 13 11 Armagh (bogland), fencing and planting ” 5 2 0

Another instance in Scotland may be recorded, in which 550 acres were planted at a cost of £1,178, or at the rate of £2 2_s._ 10_d._ per acre. This included for fencing, £164 18_s._ 4_d._; drainage, £123 15_s._; plants, £520 10_s._; planting, £368 16_s._ 8_d._

In connexion with these figures, it may be reassuring to state that in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been carefully noted, and the returns given are practically correct. The average cost, therefore, taking Great Britain as a whole, would be about £5 per acre for fencing and planting the ground. The above-named plantations, too, were formed on the very class of ground of which we have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental per acre, in various parts of the country. The Ross-shire plantation referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters, who used it as a common for their cattle and sheep, refused to rent at 1_s._ per acre per annum, while at Strathspey the 20,000 acres of land were let out previous to planting at 8_d._ per acre per annum. Vast tracts of the bare hillsides of Wales are only bringing in a few shillings of rental per acre. It should be remembered that all the above-named plantations were formed on bleak, exposed moorlands—the very class of waste lands that I have so strongly advocated as being suitable for the woodlands of the future, and of which at the present time there are about 15,000,000 acres lying idle in various parts of the kingdom. Therefore the cost of planting may be considered as or about £5 per acre. This, with £2 5_s._ for cost of purchase and 5_s._ for incidental expenses, would bring the initial total expenditure to £7 10_s._ per acre. Elsewhere I have suggested that 1,000,000 acres should be planted over a period of twenty-five years, at the rate of 40,000 acres per year, which would entail an outlay of £300,000 annually—a small sum when compared with the £25,000,000 expended each year by this country on supplies brought from abroad.

But there is another point that I should like to touch upon whilst dealing with the formation of plantations, and that is that the work should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager, who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work. It is frequently urged that forestry does not pay, but where this holds good, the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong methods of management. No more can we expect the gardener, gamekeeper, estate joiner, or even the land agent to undertake economical timber culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully the duties of any of these individuals. Wrongly formed plantations are, unfortunately, far too common, in so far, at least, as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned, the result being that, financially speaking, the woods are a failure, and proprietors, in consequence, fight shy of further planting operations. When pressing home the question of the extension of plantations, I have more than once been confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant further expenditure in that way. That this is true cannot be denied, in many instances at least, but, then, as above stated, faulty methods of management are alone responsible for the failure.

=Financial Returns from Tree Planting.=—Though it must be admitted that, in the majority of cases at least, the financial returns cannot be accepted as strictly correct (in most cases they are too low), owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial purposes, yet in not a few instances, where neither game-rearing nor ornamental effect have to be considered, the yield of timber and gross returns for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable. Of course, where game coverts and underwood, or where the perfect development of the trees, as in ornamental plantations, are matters of first importance, and require that the individual specimens be scattered thinly over the ground, the greatest yield of the best quality of timber cannot be expected; but where, as on various Scottish and English estates, the trees are grown thickly together and solely for their economic value, the case is quite different, as the returns given below will attest.

One hundred acres of common land were planted from 1852 to 1862. Larch was the principal crop, with a few beech, Scotch pine, spruce and silver fir. The plantation was thinned at intervals from 1871 to 1884, the thinnings being sold for close on £500, but many trees were used for fencing and estate purposes generally. The whole plantation was felled in 1907, and realized fully £4,500, or at the rate of £45 per acre. The larch on the lower portion averaged 23¼ ft. per tree, but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that dimension. This plantation has a northern aspect, and is situated at from 800 ft. to 1,300 ft. above sea-level. After allowing for the cost of planting and interest on the money expended, the annual return per acre comes to about 20_s._ The adjoining heath-covered lands let for about 2_s._ 6_d._ per acre. Again, on the Countess of Seafield’s estates, Scotland, on grazing land which formerly brought in 8_d._ per acre, Mr. Thomson, the woods manager, tells me that, at the age of forty-seven years, Scotch fir realized £40 per acre; while in another wood the individual trees brought 24_s._ 6_d._ each.

A larch plantation of 208 acres, on a steep hillside, was felled at the age of fifty years. The actual returns during that period were: from thinnings, £4,500; from final felling, £14,500; or fully £90 per acre. The original cost of planting was under £5 per acre, and the value of the land at thirty years’ purchase £7 10_s._ per acre, thus leaving a balance of fully £78 per acre at the age of fifty years.

The extensive hillside plantations formed by the late Lord Powerscourt in Ireland, those at Glendalough in the same country, formed by the Duke of Atholl between Dunkeld and Blair Atholl, those at Glengoy, in Aberdeenshire, at Strathkyle in Ross-shire, and at Gwydyr and Penrhyn Castle in the Principality of Wales—all of which were formed over thirty-five years ago, account of the cost of formation and management being strictly kept—these surely afford sufficient evidence not only of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands, but of the feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the way of shelter to the dreary, treeless, and bleak, exposed uplands where the planting has been carried out. As far as actual profits are concerned, it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years no return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations, the sales of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting and interest on first cost. From twenty-five to forty years an annual return of fully 12_s._ per acre has in many instances been forthcoming, while the value of the standing crop at the latter age has been found to vary from £50 to £70 per acre. I do not think that these figures would be, generally speaking, too high, as at Balfour, in Scotland, the larch at forty-three years’ growth on a hillside were valued at 20_s._ each, while a valuation of 21_s._ per tree was made of larch on the slopes of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, at the age of forty years. But many similar instances could be recorded, and are constantly coming before those who have to do with the valuing and felling of timber.

The late Mr. Lewis Miller, who had probably a larger experience of home woods than any other person, has given me some valuable and interesting information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various parts of Scotland. In twenty years, between 1870 and 1890, Mr. Miller has cut down growing timber to the value of over £250,000. A great many of the plantations were fifty years old, and yielded over £50 per acre when finally cut down, apart from the value of the thinnings taken out of them previously to the time they were cut down. To one proprietor in Aberdeenshire he paid £60,000 for plantations about fifty years of age, and the price worked out on an average at fully £50 per acre. One particular plantation of larch in Aberdeenshire, about seventy years old, yielded £150 per acre; another plantation, all larch, about forty-four years of age gave over £100 per acre, and these plantations were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste land, and cost for planting and fencing from £2 to £2 10_s._ per acre. It will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth only from 1_s._ to 3_s._ per acre have been made to realize by judicious tree planting as much as 20_s._ per acre for fifty or sixty years with a final crop worth from £50 to £75 per acre. All the plantations above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the possibilities of the British Isles for the production of high-class timber if woods are properly planted and managed.

=Advantages of Tree Planting.=—Not only from a strictly financial point of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint, plantations are of the utmost importance.

For shelter for farm stock, for improving the agricultural value of the lower lying lands, and for the part they play in clothing and ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides, their value can hardly be over-estimated. Twenty-five years ago I formed a plantation on a spur of the Snowdon range of hills, in Wales, where the fierce, long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant occurrence, and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited. Previous to the formation of this particular plantation, at altitudes varying up to 600 ft., the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation, but now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides, while the farm stock find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied. So great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as “a Godsend.” Other similar cases in Wales might be mentioned, as for instance the plantations on the Gwydyr and Penrhyn Estates, and also those near Abergele, where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most fashionable and expensive residential property. In many parts of Scotland, particularly Perth, Inverness and Aberdeenshire, equally good results have been obtained by judicious tree planting.

Another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the provision of profitable work for the unemployed. As a special chapter is devoted to this important subject, it need only be mentioned here. It should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in the wake of planting bog lands in Ireland. In 1862 my father formed several plantations there, a full account of which will be found in the _Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland_ for 1873. I examined these woods and was agreeably surprised at the height which the trees had attained, the cubic contents of the timber, and the price realized. Incidentally, it might be noticed that the ground previously to planting was a dreary, heath-clad waste, only suitable for snipe-shooting and the production of turf for fuel. Many other instances of the numerous advantages to be derived from a well-organized system of tree planting could be cited, not the least important being the greater facilities that would be afforded for disposing of the timber. In many outlying districts all over the country far removed from road and rail, it is difficult to get rid of the small amount of timber that is periodically cut down, but were larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply forthcoming, I feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to make special transit arrangements. More than once I have been asked by Irish landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber, but, after negotiation, I have invariably been told by the merchant that the quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for delivery being provided, since the timber was far away from road and rail. They stated, however, that if a specified number of cubic feet of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite prepared to buy. The same obstacles to the sale of timber have been experienced in Scotland and remote parts of Wales. In these cases a continuity of supply, such as would be forthcoming if my scheme of afforesting was carried out, would ensure speedy sales at moderate prices in places where at present it is difficult, if not impossible, to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices.

INDEX

A PAGE Abele Poplar for Town Planting, 101 Acacia, False, for Town Planting, 102 Advantages of Tree Planting, 293 Afforesting Waste Lands, 282 _Agaricus melleus_, 218 Ailanthus for Town Planting, 101 Alder as Timber, 240 —— Common, for Seaside Planting, 78 —— for Economic Planting, 52 —— —— Exposed Positions, 52 —— —— Ornamental Planting, 117 —— —— Seaside ” 78 —— Hoary, for Seaside Planting, 78 Almond for Town Planting, 107 American Winged Elm for Exposed Planting, 70 Andromeda for the Shade, 192 Apple as Timber, 240 Appliances used in Forestry, 153 _Araucaria Imbricata_ Seed, 14 Area of Woodlands, 280 Arrangement of Plantations, 33 Ash as Timber, 240 —— for Economic Planting, 48 —— —— Exposed ” 71 —— —— Ornamental ” 132 —— —— Seaside ” 79 —— —— Town ” 104 —— Seed, 11 Aspect of Home Nursery, 26 Aspen for Seaside Planting, 78 Atlantic Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82 —— —— for Economic Planting, 65 _Aucuba Japonica_ for Town Planting, 105 —— —— —— Game Coverts, 179 —— —— —— Hedges, 189 Austrian Pine for Economic Planting, 65 —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 69 —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— —— Town Planting, 108 —— —— Seed, 11 Autumn-tinted Foliage Trees for Ornamental Planting, 123 Autumn Work in Home Nursery, 30

B Bark, 255 —— Stripping——Tools used, 222 Barking Oak, 220-222 Barron’s Transplanting Machine, 140 Beam Tree for Seaside Planting, 77 —— —— in London, 103 Bedford Willow for Seaside Planting, 85 Beech Coccus, 205 Beech as Timber, 246 —— for Economic Planting, 49 —— —— Exposed ” 71 —— —— Hedge ” 187 —— —— Ornamental ” 188 —— —— Seaside ” 80 —— Seed, 11 Beetle Pine, 193 _Berberis Darwinii_ for Game Coverts, 180 —— —— —— Hedge Planting, 189 —— —— —— Seaside, 84 Bhotan Pine for Ornamental Planting, 117 Birch as Timber, 240 —— for Economic Planting, 53 —— —— Exposed ” 71 —— —— Ornamental ” 122 —— —— Seaside ” 79 —— —— Town ” 104 —— Seed, 11 Bird Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71 —— —— —— Town Planting, 104 Black Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101 Blackberry for the Shade, 192 Bladder Senna for Town Planting, 106 —— Rust or Cluster-Cup, 219 Blasting Tree Roots, 273 Bog Soils, Trees for, 136 _Bostrichus Laricis_, 194 —— _Typographus_, 194 Box for Hedge Planting, 188 —— —— Game Covert, 177 —— Thorn for Seaside Planting, 83 Bracing a Tree, 159 Briar for Hedge Planting, 188 British Oak for Hedge Planting, 111 —— Timber and its Uses, 240 Broom for Seaside Planting, 84 Buckthorn, Sea, for Seaside Planting, 82 Burning Tree Stumps, 274 Butcher’s Broom for Game Coverts, 182 —— —— —— Carpeting in Shade, 192 By-products of the Forest, 250

C Canadian Poplar for Town Planting, 101 Cedar for Seaside Planting, 82 Cephalonian Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118 Chalky Soil for Tree Planting, 130, 136 Charcoal, 253 —— Making, 226 —— Comparative Value of Wood, 231 —— Pit, 231 —— Kiln Burning, 231 —— Uses of, 232 Cherry as Timber, 240 —— for Exposed Planting, 71 —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 Chestnut as Timber, 240 —— for Town Planting, 104 —— —— Economic Planting, 51 Clay Soil for Tree Plantations, 138 Cleaning and Pruning Hedges, 189 Climbers for Town Planting, 107 Cluster Pine for Planting, 81 —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 Cockchafer, 202 Colchic Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189 Collecting Tree Seeds, 8 Common Alder for Seaside Planting, 78 —— Gorse for Seaside Planting, 84 Common Holly for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191 —— —— —— Town Planting, 107 —— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Laurel for Hedge Planting, 189 —— London Plane for Town Planting, 98 —— Mulberry for Town Planting, 102 Comparative Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231 Conifers suitable for Chalky Soil, 131 —— —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129 —— for Economic Planting, 57 —— —— Town Planting, 108 —— Seeds, 9 —— Seaside, 80 Contract Work, Prices of, 277 Contents, xi Coppice Wood Management, 170 —— Cost of, 173 Cornelian Cherry for Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— —— Hedgerow Planting, 111 Corsican Pine for Economic Planting, 59 —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 —— —— Seeds, 11 Cost of Forming Plantations, 287-288 _Cratægus Pyracantha_ for Town Planting, 108 Cricket Bat Willow, 54 Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118 Cucumber Tree for Town Planting, 101 _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, Seed of, 11 —— —— for Town Planting, 109 Currant, Flowering, for Town Planting, 106 Cut-leaved Trees, 121 Cutting Osiers, 247 Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— Seaside Planting, 82

D _Daphne Laureola_ for Seaside Planting, 84 —— _Mezereon_ for Seaside Planting, 84 Darwin’s Barberry for Seaside Planting, 84 Deciduous Cypress for Ornamental Planting, 117 Dedication, v Dogwood for Seaside Planting, 83 —— —— Charcoal, 232 Double Furze for Town Planting, 106 Douglas Fir for Economic Planting, 63 —— —— Seed, 12 Draining——Tools used, 37 —— and Clearing Ground for Plantations, 36 Dried Leaves as Litter, 251

E Economic Planting, 47 —— —— Trees for, 48 Elder for Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— Seaside Planting, 76 Elegant Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118 Elm, as Timber, 240 —— English for Hedge Planting, 111 —— for Economic Planting, 51 —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— Seaside Planting, 79 —— —— Town Planting, 104 —— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 85 —— Seed, 12 —— Tree Destroyer, 199, 200 English Elm for Hedge Planting, 111 —— Maple for Seaside Planting, 79 _Euonymus Japonicus_ for Seaside Planting, 84 —— _Radicans Variegata_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192 Evergreen Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107 —— Oak for Seaside Planting, 79 Exposed Ground, Planting, 72

F Faggots, 255 False Acacia for Town Planting, 102 Felling——Tools used, 43 Felted Beech Coccus, 205 Fencing, 97 —— Plantations, 257 —— Tools used, 264 Fern-leaved Beech for Ornamental Planting, 118 Financial Returns of Planting, 290 Firewood, 252 _Fitzroya Patagonica_ for Ornamental Planting, 118 Flowering Currant for Town Planting, 106 —— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116 Forest Area of the World, 280 Forest By-Products, 250 —— Produce, Utilizing, 250 Forestry and the War, 1 Formation of Game Coverts, 174 —— —— Plantations, 32 _Forsythia Viridissima_ for Town Planting, 106 Fountain Willow, 121 Fruit Trees for Ornamental Planting, 116 Fungi on Trees, 212 Furze for Hedge Planting, 188 —— —— Town Planting, 106

G Game Coverts, Formation and Management, 184 _Gaultheria Procumbens_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192 —— _Shallon_ for Carpeting in Shade, 192 —— —— —— Game Coverts, 181 Giant Arborvitæ for Economic Planting, 64 —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 Goat Moth, 200 —— Willow for Seaside Planting, 78 Golden Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117 Gorse for Hedge Planting, 188 —— —— Seaside Planting, 84 Grasses for the Sea-Coast, 86 —— —— Woodland Drives, 34 Gravelly Soil for Tree Plantation, 131-137 Green Tree Box for Game Coverts, 177 _Griselinia Littoralis_ for Seaside Planting, 83 —— —— —— Town Planting, 105 Groundsel Tree for Seaside Planting, 84

H Hard-wooded Trees for Economic Planting, 47 Hardwoods for Chalky Soil, 130 —— —— Clay Soils, 132 —— —— Gravelly Soil, 131 —— —— Ironstone Soils, 133 —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129 Hawthorn Seed, 12 Hazel Nuts, 12 Heather for the Shade, 192 Heaven, Tree of, for Town Planting, 101 Hedges as Fences, 185 —— Formation of, 184 —— Management, 184 —— Ornamental, 188 —— Planting, 186 —— Pruning, 189 Hedgerow and Field Planting, 110 Hedging Tools used, 185 Height of Trees, Measuring, 271 Hoary Alder for Seaside Planting, 78 Holly as Timber, 240 —— Berries, 12 —— Fly, 204 —— for Game Coverts, 181 —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 —— —— Seaside Planting, 84 Home Nursery, 24 —— —— Spring Work, 28 —— —— Summer Work, 30 —— —— Autumn Work, 30 —— —— Winter Work, 30 Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107 Hornbeam as Timber, 241 —— for Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— Hedge Planting, 113, 167 —— —— Seaside Planting, 80 —— —— Town Planting, 104 Horse Chestnut as Timber, 241 —— —— for Town Planting, 104 —— —— Seeds, 12 Hot and Dry Soils, Shrubs for, 134 How to Prune, 157 Huntingdon Willow for Seaside Planting, 77 _Hypericum Calycinum_ for Seaside Planting, 84

I Imperial Alder for Ornamental Planting, 117 Index, 295 Indian Bean for Town Planting, 102 Insects and Diseases Injurious to Forest Trees, 193 Introduction, ix Ironstone Soil for Plantations, 133, 138 Italian Poplar for Town Planting, 101 Ivy for Carpeting in Shade, 191 —— —— Town Planting, 107

J Japanese Cryptomeria for Ornamental Planting, 118 _Jasminum Nudiflorum_ for Town Planting, 108 Juneberry for Ornamental Planting, 118 Juniper, Savin for towns, 109

K Kentucky Coffee-Tree for Town Planting, 106 Kilmarnock Willow, 121 Kiln Burning Charcoal, 231

L Laburnum, Common, for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Moth, 202 —— Scotch, for Seaside Planting, 84 Lackey Moth, 200 Land Sale on the Gwydyr Estate, 287 Larch Aphis, 197 —— Canker, 213 —— Cones, 12 —— Disease, Cause and Remedy, 213 —— for Economic Planting, 57 —— —— Exposed Planting, 71 —— —— Hedge Planting, 114 —— Miner, 195 —— Sawfly, 198 —— Timber, 241 Large-Fruited Cypress for Seaside Planting, 82 Laurel Spurge for Carpeting in Shade, 192 Laurustinus for Game Coverts, 179 —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 —— —— Seaside Planting, 83 —— —— Town Planting, 107 Leaf-Shedding Fungus, 218 Levelling, 38 _Leycesteria Formosa_ for Town Planting, 106 _Ligustrum Coriaceum_ for Town Planting, 105 —— _Ovalifolium_ for Seaside Planting, 84 Lilacs for Seaside Planting, 84 —— —— Town Planting, 84 Lime as Timber, 241 —— for Hedge Planting, 113 —— —— Town Planting, 103 Litter of Dried Leaves, 251 Lombardy Poplar for Hedge Planting, 112 —— —— —— Town Planting, 101 London Plane for Town Planting, 98 Lymegrass for Seaside Planting, 84

M Magnolias for Ornamental Planting, 118 —— for Town Planting, 101 _Mahonia Aquifolia_ for Game Coverts, 180 Maidenhair Tree for Town Planting, 100 Manna Ash for Ornamental Planting, 118 Manufacture of Charcoal, 226 Manure for Home Nursery, 26 Maple as Timber, 241 —— for Seaside Planting, 79 Maram for Seaside Planting, 84 Measuring Height of Trees, 272 Measuring Standing Timber, 270 Mezereon Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192 Minor Products of Forest Waste, 256 Mountain Ash for Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 78 —— —— —— Town Planting, 104 —— —— Seed, 12 Mulberry for Town Planting, 102

N Norway Maple for Seaside Planting, 76 —— Spruce for Economic Planting, 64 Notch Planting, 44 Nursery, Formation and Management, 24 —— Home, its Formation and Management, 24 —— Plan of, 27 —— Tools used in, 29 —— Work for the Seasons, 28

O Oak as Timber, 241 —— Evergreen for Seaside Planting, 79 —— for Economic Planting, 47 —— —— Exposed Planting, 71 —— —— Seaside Planting, 79 —— —— Roller Moth, 204 —— Seed, 13 _Olearia Hastii_, 105 _—— Macrodonta_, 105 Oriental Plane for Town Planting, 98 Ornamental Planting, 116 —— Weeping Trees, 121 _Osmanthus Ilicifolius_ for Town Planting, 105

P Paper=Pulp, 251 Peat Soil, 129 Periwinkles for Carpeting in Shade, 191 _Phillyrea Vilmoriniana_ for Town Planting, 106 _Picia Sitchensis_, 59 Pine Beetle, 193 —— for Economic Planting, 59 —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— Ornamental Planting, 121 —— —— Seaside Planting, 81 —— Sawfly, 196 —— Shoot Moth, 195 —— Weevil, 194 _Pinus Insignis_, 82 _—— Montana_ for Seaside Planting, 81-85 _—— Macrocarpa_ Seed, 14 _—— Sabiniana_ Seed, 14 _—— Stropus_, 11 Pitch, 251 Pitting, 40 Plane for Town Planting, 99 —— Tree in Regent’s Park, 99 Plantations, Formation and Cost, 32 —— Hedges, 184 Planting, 41 —— Advantages of Tree, 293 —— Exposed Ground, 68 —— Financial Returns of, 290 —— Hedges, 184 —— Iron, 45 —— Ironstone Soils, 133 —— Notch, 44 —— Ornamental, 121 —— Osiers, 243 —— Tools used for, 43 _Polyporus Sulphureus_, 219 _—— Squamosus_, 216 Poplar as Timber, 241 —— for Economic Planting, 57 —— Town Planting, 101 _Populus Canadensis_ for Seaside Planting, 78 _—— Alba_ for Seaside Planting, 78 _—— Nigra_ for Seaside Planting, 78 Portugal Laurel for Seaside Planting, 84 Preface, vii Preparation of Ground for Town Planting, 92 —— —— —— Hedges, 184 Prices of Contract Work, 277 —— of Timber per ton, 239 —— —— —— per cubic foot, 238 —— —— Forest Produce, 237 Prince Albert’s Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118 Privet for Game Coverts, 178 —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 Propagating Trees and Shrubs, 15 —— by Cuttings, 19 —— —— Grafting, 22 —— from Budding, 23 —— —— Layers, 21 —— —— Seed, 15 Prune, How and When to, 157 Pruning Bad Effects of, 152 —— Dead Wood, 155 —— Hedges, 152 —— Live Branches, 154 —— Shrubs, 157 —— Tools used in, 153 —— Trees, 151 Purple Willow for Ornamental Planting, 117 Pyrus for Ornamental Planting, 118

Q Quick Hedges, 186

R Red-Rot Fungus, 217 Red Spider, 201 _Retinospora_ for Town Planting, 109 _Rhamnus Frangula_ for Charcoal, 233 _Rhododendron Ponticum_ for Game Coverts, 180 _Rhytisma Punctata_, 216 _Rosa Rugosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188 _—— Rubiginosa_ for Hedge Planting, 188 Rowan Tree for Town Planting, 104 _Ruscus Aculeatus_ for Seaside Planting, 84

S St. John’s Wort for Carpeting in Shade, 191 —— —— —— —— Game Coverts, 182 Scotch Elm for Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 79 —— Fir as Timber, 242 —— —— for Hedge Planting, 113 —— Laburnum for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Pine for Economic Planting, 62 —— —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— —— Seaside Planting, 82 Sea Buckthorn for Seaside Planting, 82 Seaside Planting, 73 —— —— Hardwoods for, 76 —— —— Shrubs for, 82 —— —— List of Trees for, 85 Seed, Best Depth for Germinating, 17 —— Collecting and Harvesting, 8 —— of Various Trees contained in a Bushel, 10 —— Required to plant 100 sq. ft., 18 —— Tree, number in a lb., 10 Selecting Tree Seeds, 9 Shade-loving Shrubs, 191 Shrubs for Carpeting in Shade, 191 Shrubs for Hot and Dry Soils, 134 —— —— the Sea-Coast, 82-86 —— —— Town Planting, 105-107 Silver Fir as Timber, 242 —— —— for Economic Planting, 64 —— —— Seed, 13 Sitka Spruce for Economic Planting, 59 _Skimmia Japonica_ for Town Planting, 106 Slate Fences for Plantations, 258 Slit Planting, 44 Snowberry for Seaside Planting, 83 _Snowy Mespilus_ for Town Planting, 106 Soil for Home Nursery, 26 _Sophora Japonica_ for Town Planting, 104 Spanish Broom for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Chestnut as Timber, 51 —— —— for Economic Planting, 51 —— —— Seed, 12 —— Silver Fir for Ornamental Planting, 118 Spider, Red, 201 _Spirea Adiantifola_ for Seaside Planting, 83 Spring Work in Home Nursery, 28 Spruce Fir as Timber, 242 —— for Economic Planting, 59 —— —— Ornamental Planting, 118 —— Gall Aphis, 198 Spurge Laurel for Carpeting in Shade, 192 —— —— —— Town Planting, 106 Stag’s Horn Sumach for Town Planting, 106 Staking Trees, 119 Standing Timber Measuring, 270 Stone Walls for Fencing Plantations, 257 Strawberry Trees for Town Planting, 106 —— —— for Seaside, 84 Summer Work in Home Nursery, 30 Sweet-Bay for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Briar for Hedge Planting, 188 —— Chestnut for Economic Planting, 51 Sycamore as Timber, 242 —— for Economic Planting, 51 —— —— Exposed Planting, 70 —— —— Hedge Planting, 112 —— —— Seaside Planting, 76 —— —— Town Planting, 104 —— Fungus, 216

T Tamarisk for Seaside Planting, 76-82 _Tamarix Gallica_ for Seaside Planting, 82 _—— Germanica_ for Seaside Planting, 82 Tansy-leaved Thorn for Town Planting, 105 Tar, 251 _Taxodium Distichum_ for Town Planting, 109 Thinning Plantations, 141 —— —— Rules for, 149 Thorn Fly, 202 —— for Hedge Planting, 186 Thorns for Ornamental Planting, 118 —— —— Seaside Planting, 83 —— —— Town Planting, 105 _Thujopsis Dolabrata_ for Town Planting, 109 Timber, British, and Some of Its Uses, 240 —— Measuring, 288 —— Prices, 237 Tools used in Forestry, 43 Town Planting, 87-109 —— —— Trees for, 98 Transplanting Seedlings, 18 —— Large Trees, 139 —— Machine, Faulkner’s, 140 —— Specimen Trees, 118 Tree Groundsel for Seaside Planting, 84 —— Guards, 265 —— Mallow for Seaside Planting, 83 Tree of Heaven for Town Planting, 101 —— Planting, Advantages of, 293 —— —— Financial Returns of, 290 —— Pruning in Economic Forestry, 151 —— Purslane for Seaside Planting, 83 Trees and Shrubs, Propagating, 15 —— best adapted for Various Soils, 128 —— for Chalky or Calcareous Soils, 130 —— —— Clay Soils, 132 —— —— Economic Planting, 47 —— —— Exposed Planting, 68 —— —— Gravelly and Sandy Soils, 131 —— —— Hedge Planting, 110 —— —— Hedgerow and Field, 110 —— —— Ironstone Soils, 133 —— —— —— and Coal Soils, 133 —— —— Ornamental Planting, 121 —— —— Peaty Soils 129 —— —— Seaside Planting, 85 —— —— Town Planting, 98 Trumpet Honeysuckle for Town Planting, 107 Tulip Tree for Town Plantations, 102 Turf Dykes for Plantations, 269 Turkey Oak for Seaside Planting, 79 Turpentine, 250

U Umbrella Pine for Ornamental Planting, 118 Underwood, 170 Uses of Charcoal, 232 Utilizing Waste Forest Produce, 250

V Value of Woods for Charcoal Making, 231 —— —— Reclaimed Peat Bog, 129 Venetian Sumach for Town Planting, 106 _Vinca Major_ for Seaside Planting, 84 —— _Minor_ for Seaside Planting, 84 Vine for Town Planting, 108 Virginia Creeper for Town Planting, 107

W Walnut as Timber, 242 —— for Town Planting, 104 —— Seed, 13 Waste Forest Produce, Utilizing, 250 Water for Home Nursery, 26 Watering Trees, 97 Wayfaring Tree for Town Planting, 106 Weeping Ash for Town Planting, 104 —— Trees for Ornamental Planting, 121 Weymouth Pine for Economic Planting, 60 —— Pine Seeds, 11 When to Prune, 157 White Beam Tree for Town Planting, 102 —— Fruited Mulberry for Town Planting, 102 —— Rot Fungus, 218 Wild Cherry for Exposed Planting, 71 Willow Beetle, 197 —— Culture, 243 —— for Economic Planting, 54 —— —— Ornamental Planting, 117 —— —— Seaside Planting, 78 —— —— Timber, 242 —— —— Town Planting, 104 —— Kilmarnock, 121 —— Ringlet, 121 Willows for Basket-Making, 243 —— Profits of Culture, 248 —— Rules for Culture, 247 Winged Elm for the Seaside, 77 Winter Moth, 210 —— Work in Home Nursery, 30 Wire Fences for Plantations, 263 Wireworms, 208 Witch’s Broom or Willow, 210 Wood Fences for Plantations, 262 —— Leopard Moth, 203 Woods for Charcoal Making, 231

Y Yew as Timber, 242 —— for Game Coverts, 181 —— —— Hedge Planting, 188 —— Seed, 13

Butler & Tanner Frome and London