CHAPTER V

FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS

=Laying out the Boundary.=—Before commencing actual planting operations several preliminaries must be attended to. These will include (1) laying out the boundary, (2) clearing the ground of rough-growing vegetation, (3) drainage where necessary, (4) fencing, and (5) laying out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient working of the plantation. For the benefit of the trees, for shelter purposes, and for the general appearance of the landscape, it would be well were more attention paid to the laying out of the sites for new plantations. In many cases, however, there is no choice in the matter, the proprietor saying, Here is a field that is of no great value for agricultural purposes, plant it up. But in the case of hillside or moorland planting the matter is usually different, the choice of ground, size of plantation, and method of planting being left entirely in the hands of the forester. Many considerations will tend to determine the position of boundaries—bounds of property, proximity to roads, public paths, and the existence or future probabilities of modes of transit, all being more or less significant factors.

First, however, it is advisable to take into consideration when planting hillside or moorland, the shelter to be afforded to cultivated land in the neighbourhood, but a combination of this with the aforementioned considerations will be all-important.

The form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the prevailing wind, and should always present a convex side towards it, as it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions, thereby losing much of its destructive power. Blending one curve with another should be strictly observed, and continuous straight lines should be avoided, not only for appearance sake, but as it is well known that the most destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines.

[Illustration: HILLSIDE WITH PLANTING ARTISTICALLY ARRANGED]

[Illustration: SAME HILLSIDE WITH STIFFLY ARRANGED PLANTATION]

=Woodland Roads.=—These are necessary for access to the wood when thinning, the removal of timber and firewood, and for sporting purposes. They should either be pegged out or formed before planting operations have been commenced, and need neither be of an elaborate character nor attended with great expense in construction. According to the area of the plantation, so should the roads be arranged, and a considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving them unplanted. Usually they are made 30 ft. wide, and only require to have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by drainage.

It is a good plan, so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable, dry condition, to cut a ditch along each side of the ride, parallel to it, and, say, 18 in. wide by 15 in. deep. The soil so removed will come in for filling up inequalities on the road surface. Steep roads should be avoided by following, in quickly sloping woodlands, the curve of the ground., For sowing down woodland drives, bridle-paths, etc., the following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended:—

lbs. Timothy grass, hard fescue, tall fescue, and meadow foxtail, 2 lbs. each 8 Smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot, 4 lbs. each 8 Rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal, 4 lbs. each 8 Wood meadow grass 8 ———— Total 32

In sowing down gravelly or sandy rides, I have found the Lyme or sand grass—_Elymus arenarius_—and the Sea Matweed—_Psamma arenaria_—to answer well, the seeds of each being sown in equal proportions.

Before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated, and all surface inequalities levelled.

=Fencing.=—Local circumstances will often determine the mode of fencing new plantations. Where stones are abundant these may be utilized in the formation of walls, while in districts where slate abounds excellent fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost.

Turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries, but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful.

Stone and turf walls are now, however, almost entirely superseded by iron fencing, it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point, but quickly erected and moderately cheap.

To recommend any particular system of wire fencing would, for various reasons, be out of place, for amongst the numerous kinds now offered almost any desired pattern can be obtained.

In any case the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in. in height, with seven-strand wires, two No. 6 and five No. 7; and, as this is placed in position at so much per mile by the makers, it is always well, so as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense, to have it so put up. Where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate, it would, perhaps, be unwise to employ iron, but in the majority of cases it will be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron and wire.

The straining-posts should be of sound, well-seasoned larch or oak, and 7 ft. long by 6 in. square, or if round 7 in. in diameter.

The intermediate posts are usually of larch, 5½ ft. long by 3½ in., by 3 in., or if round, not less than 3½ in. diameter at small end.

The straining-posts are placed in the ground at 150 yards apart, with an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the line of fence. The intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the ground along the line of fence at 6 ft. apart.

In order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle not less than six wires should be erected, and galvanized strand wire is preferable. The total height of the fence need not exceed 3 ft. 6 in., and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower down.

In tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed, but brackets for the same purpose are preferable, these being attached to the straining-posts.

They are of particular value, as the wire can be tightened or slackened at will.

The posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant, so that the rain may run off.

=Draining the Ground.=—Efficient drainage must be considered as one of the most important operations in the formation of a plantation. Every portion of the ground may not, probably, require to be drained, but where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such will be a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the trees is a point of first importance. In commencing draining the position of the main outlet must first be determined, and in doing so every fall of the ground should be taken advantage of. It is quite impossible to lay down rules as to the number, sizes, and distances apart of the various drains, these being points that can only be satisfactorily settled on the spot, and when the nature of the soil, lie of the ground, and amount of rainfall to be carried off are determined. In most cases, however, the main drains should be from 2 ft. 6 in. to fully 3 ft. wide at the top or surface, from 10 in. to 12 in. wide at the bottom, and about 3 ft. deep. The minor drains may be less in proportion to the mains, and are usually 2 ft. deep, 2½ ft. wide at top, and the width of the draining spade at bottom.

According to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which the drains should be cut vary, but in most cases from 15 ft. to 30 ft., sometimes even less, and sometimes considerably more. The minor drains should never run at right angles to the main, but at about 45°, which will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of water in the main. The soil removed from the drains should be evenly spread out over the ground-surface.

[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN DRAINING]

=Levelling.=—In the carrying out of drainage operations in connexion with the formation of new plantations, but particularly where the land is nearly level, one of the most necessary implements is the spirit-level or theodolite. There are many other operations, as well as in connexion with draining, where the level and the knowledge of its working are all-important for the forester. Thus in the formation of roads and paths, levelling of ground inequalities, lake and pond forming, etc., the level will be found an almost indispensable instrument—in fact, it cannot well be done without.

Of levelling instruments there are various descriptions, but the simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level, it being cheap, easily carried about in the pocket, and when erected on a temporary staff will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest work. The illustration (Fig. 1) will give a good idea of the simple instrument. When in use the spirit-level is fixed in a frame of brass, the whole being screwed into a staff or support, _e_. The brass screw, _d_, serves to adjust the level as required.

There are two eyesights, _a_ and _b_, the latter being a square opening, with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle.

[Illustration: FIG. 1. SPIRIT-LEVEL.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2. METHOD OF LEVELLING.]

The relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of their vertical distances from others which, on the supposition of the earth being a sphere, are equally distant from its centre, and these, which are called level-points, must be found by an instrument constructed for the purpose—spirit-level, theodolite, etc. Generally choice is made of any convenient stations, _a, b, c, d_, on the line of operation (see Fig. 2), and the distances between them are determined by actual ad-measurement. The instrument is then set up and adjusted at, or near, the middle of the interval between every two such points in succession. When the level thus placed, as at _f_, has been rendered horizontal by means of the adjusting screw, an assistant at each of the stations _a_ and _b_, holding what is called a station-staff in a vertical position, moves an index along the staff, up or down, as dictated by the observer of the level, till it coincides with the intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope. The points thus determined on the stave are represented by _e_ and _g_, and these are termed level-points, or points equally distant from the centre of the earth. Therefore the heights _a, e_, and _b, g_, being read on the graduated staves, the difference between them will give the relative heights of the ground at _a_ and _b_. Similar processes are repeated with respect to the points _b_ and _c_, and _c_ and _d_, the instrument being placed at _i_ and _m_, midway between them. Usually the heights _b g, c l_ and _d n_ are inserted in a column headed “Foresights,” and the heights _a e, b h_, _c k_ and _d n_ in a collateral column headed “Backsights.” The difference between the sums of the numbers in these two columns will be equal to the height of one extremity (_a_) of the line, above the other (_d_). When a number of levels have to be taken in succession, it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor’s level or theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated.

With regard to the use of the instrument as shown in Fig. 1, it may be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight _b_ from the ground must be deducted from the point observed. As an example: if the object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches, and the hair wire in taking a sight strike the same at, say, 8 ft., then, if the eyesight be 4 ft. from the ground, the difference of level between the two stations (instrument and station) will be 4 ft., that is, there will be 4 ft. of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where the staff was placed. On the other hand, should the hair wire strike the object-pole at, say, 2 ft. from the ground, these 2 ft. must be deducted from the height of the eyesight, which, as we have said, was 4 ft., then the ground at the station-pole must be 2 ft. higher than that at the spirit-level.

=Clearing the Ground.=—Coarse-growing herbage, which often includes heath, gorse, and rough grasses, that would interfere with planting operations, should be removed, but not indiscriminately, as it may prove of inestimable value under certain conditions. On exposed and high-lying ground, the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage to the young trees, and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to cause damage at high altitudes. Where, however, the growth of such shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees, by all means have them removed. The best way is either to cut them over or grub out by the root, and burn on the ground. During a continuance of dry weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting, but, generally speaking, removal of the roots is to be encouraged.

=Pitting.=—The advantages of pitting over any method of planting cannot be questioned, and this is particularly the case with ground that has hitherto been uncultivated. Compared with notch planting, this system is, no doubt, more expensive, but that the future benefits to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical arboriculturists.

It is not, however, to be inferred that, though pitting is preferable, notching is to be abandoned, for there are many precipitous, rocky places where it would be the only practice feasible, and plants so inserted have often succeeded admirably.

The pits should in all cases be opened for some time before planting—indeed, in unfavourable soils and situations, it is a good practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted the following spring. By so doing, the earth that has been removed from the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost and sunshine, so that when the time for replacing it comes round, it will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the young trees.

The pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular, about 18 in. in diameter and fully 12 in. deep, and the sides and bottom well loosened up with a pick. In loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be much smaller. Take off the surface turf in halves, placing these on one side of the pit, and the soil on the other, for ease and convenience in planting. When the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits should, so as to facilitate quick replacing, be deposited on the higher side.

=Planting.=—This may be successfully carried out during all open weather from about the end of September to the beginning of April, but, generally speaking, autumn planting is to be recommended. There are several exceptions however: such as when we have to deal with peat bog, water-logged soil, exposed hillsides, or land by the sea-coast. Where the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms, such as we get on hillsides or by the sea, or contend with very uncongenial soils, it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring, or just when the trees are about to make a start to growth, as they, with their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery border to the more trying surroundings just referred to, are more likely to take hold at once and succeed.

The battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble them that, in spring, when growth should commence, the majority will be found to be in a very unsatisfactory state, whereas, by inserting in spring, when growth will soon be at its full activity, the chances of succeeding are greatly enhanced. In peat bog the antiseptic properties of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced. However, with the exceptions cited, tree planting throughout the British Isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves of the hardwood species have fallen, which usually takes place about the second or third week of October, much depending on the particular season. Lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes, and do not, on any account, tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of tearing the trees from the ground, and before they have been properly loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork. To lift nursery stock properly—and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well spent—a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and the soil undermined from beneath the roots, so that the plants can be lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets. It is not important, if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted, that soil should accompany each, the roots being plentiful and unmutilated making up for the want of this. Where, however, the plants have not to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is no need to remove much of the soil, for if left intact the young tree is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was shaken clean off.

[Illustration: TOOLS USED IN PLANTING]

Immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended, the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather being well known. Should it, however, not be convenient to plant at once, the nursery-stock should be stood closely together, and some damp straw, leaves, or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed specimens in the lot. In any case, the roots must never be allowed to become dry and parched, or be subjected to frosty winds, as these act most perniciously, and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them almost useless for the purpose intended.

In planting, spread the roots to their full extent in the pits, avoiding all cramping and bending, placing the largest to the most exposed side, and cover with earth, the finest soil being placed next the roots, and the rougher and grassy on the top. Placing the turf in the bottom of the pit, cutting it well up with the spade, putting a little earth on the top of this, and then planting the trees, has its advantages, the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots have got down to it.

=Slit or Notch Planting.=—This is done by simply cutting the sod or surface by two strokes of the spade, and to the depth of about 5 in.: thus =L= or =T=. With the first stroke the spade is inserted in the ground in an almost perpendicular manner; it is then withdrawn and inserted at right angles to the first notch and at the end of it, and by pressing down the handle of the spade the turf is opened up, the plant being inserted from the blade of the spade towards the further end; the spade is then carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so as to cause the notches to close completely. This latter should be strictly attended to, as should the notch be left partially open, the plant will suffer from the admission of an undue quantity of air. The operation requires two persons—a man to open the notch, and a boy to insert the plant. It is chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground, and large tracts of ground in Scotland have been very successfully operated upon in this way. With the notch system there are advantages and disadvantages. In the first instance, we have reduced cost, expedition, and firm insertion; whilst in the second small plants only can be used, the soil remains unbroken, and the root system presents an unnatural position.

The plants used with the notch system should not exceed 9 in. in height.

=The Planting-iron= has been found of great value for inserting small forest trees in rocky ground, where it would be almost impossible to do so in any other way. It is 17 in. long, weighs 3 lbs., and can be conveniently used with one hand.

Holding the “iron” slackly, the planter strikes it into the ground with a force sufficient to drive the sharp, heart-pointed blade in about 3 in. or 4 in. By pressing it down and towards the planter, with a slight twist to the right, the left corner of the turf is opened up, the plant being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground. The iron is then withdrawn, and the loosened turf made firm by tramping.

Only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron, and great care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the stem of the young tree.

=Planting Trees too deep.=—Fully 50 per cent. of the deaths amongst newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the pernicious practice of too deep planting. Cases come before us frequently where, owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at too great a depth in the soil, they have either died out or gradually become unhealthy owing to strangulation and want of air. It is a mistaken idea that by placing the roots at an excessive depth in the soil the young tree will be better enabled to withstand wind, and so remain in an erect position. Most workmen quite ignore the original mark on the tree stem as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery, and go to an opposite extreme by covering up both root and stem to an unnecessary depth. Large trees suffer quite as much from being planted too deep as those of smaller growth. Quite recently we were asked to look at a large number of lime trees about 16 ft. in height that had been planted for several years without a sign of upward growth. The reason for this was not hard to discover, for on unearthing one of the trees it was found that the roots were covered with fully 2 ft. in depth of soil. The trees in question had never budged an inch, and were from year to year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous practice of too deep planting. No better guide as to the depth at which a tree should be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem showing the depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management. In order to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with the wind, and to preserve them in an upright position, firm trampling is all that is required. In very exposed situations it may sometimes be found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on the opposite side from which it is leaning, and to make this firm by means of the foot. Staking, at least in the case of small transplants, is never necessary, though in the case of larger trees and where the situation is exposed, light poles thrust into the ground to which the stems are made fast may be found necessary. Of course, it is a mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent that the roots become strained and barked, and holes worked around the stems, but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of the newly-planted trees. Stones should never be placed in the holes referred to, as they damage the roots, a piece of stiff turf or heavy soil being far preferable. With a large experience of tree planting I find that the general tendency is to plant too deep—an evil that it is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying, in some cases at least.