CHAPTER VI

TREES FOR ECONOMIC PLANTING

From a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the shortest space of time.

Amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be recommended for profitable planting. Of course many others are valuable as shade and shelter producers, but from a strictly economic point of view, that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first consideration, only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species can be included in the list.

Amongst hardwoods we have the oak, ash, beech, sycamore, elm, Spanish chestnut, willow, poplar, alder and birch; while coniferous trees would include the larch, Scotch and Corsican pines, common and Sitka spruce, silver and Douglas firs, and possibly the giant Arborvitæ and Weymouth pine.

The =Oak=.—Than the timber of the oak none other produced in this country is more lasting or valuable—indeed, in few other trees are the qualities of strength and durability, hardness and elasticity combined to such an extent. As might be expected, however, the value of oak timber is greatly influenced by soil, that produced on deep, heavy loam or clay lands being of superior quality. The colour of the wood also varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and even green. Brown oak, which is almost confined to the Midland counties of England, is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay, and attacked by a fungus, and is generally associated with trees that are long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and unhealthy. The finest examples I have seen of brown oak were produced at Ampthill in Bedfordshire, and on the Welbeck Estate in Notts. The beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain conditions is due to the action of the fungus _Peziza æruginosa_. As this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be destroyed, wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy furniture. Unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most often attacked by the fungus, and we have known timber of the oak when left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour. Owing to the scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken to produce the colouring by artificial means, but as far as we are aware the results were not satisfactory. The best examples of green oak timber that we have seen were produced in Kent, and in the North of Ireland.

The =Ash=.—When viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must, next to the oak, be considered as our most valuable forest tree. The massive, deeply fluted, or cylindrical trunk, the weighty swelling branches, and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green foliage, all combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for ornamental planting, but particularly so when associated with others that are of a darker shade of green. The ash is indigenous to Europe, Northern Africa, and North America, while throughout the British Isles it is widely dispersed.

It thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations, but the finest timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites, and where the soil is rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones. In order to produce clean, springy timber, such as is in request for the making of tool-handles, aeroplanes and agricultural implements, the ash should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are for the greater part destitute of branches. For black, peaty soils, or that of a dampish, loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly suited, in which, after being cut over, it will reproduce itself freely. At from thirty to forty years’ growth the ash is most valuable for handle wood and for agricultural implements.

The timber is hard, heavy, and flexible, and though rapidly grown it is tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country, hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes where great strength, combined with yielding powers, are points of first consideration. Few timbers become useful at such an early age as does the ash. At from four to six years’ growth it is fit for walking sticks, for spade handles at ten years, while after that age the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse. For the cartwright, the agricultural implement maker, carpenter, cooper and turner, it is of special value. No timber has been found to equal it for the making of oars, pulleys, blocks, ladders, hoops, and crates. Owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails, kitchen tables, staircases, and similar purposes, while when of large size it is greatly in demand for furniture making.

For smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand. Potash is procured from the ashes of the branches, and the bark has a special value in the tanning of nets.

The =Beech=.—For profitable planting the beech is one of our most valuable trees, while it has the extra recommendations that it grows rapidly, succeeds well in the shade, and reproduces itself freely.

The finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils, the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively high price obtained for that grown on the Chiltern Hills and chalky formations of parts of Kent and Herts. The growth of the beech is rapid and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years, after which age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive purposes. It is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is extensively used in the making of Windsor chairs, for millwright and engineering purposes, for the handles of carpenters’ tools, for bobbins and, when clean and of large size, for the calendar machines of cloth manufactures.

[Illustration: STANDARD BEECH TREE]

Growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater amount of shade than perhaps any other species. It associates well with the oak under cultivation.

The =Sycamore= for profitable planting can be recommended owing to the high price which can be obtained for timber of large size, though even when of thirty years’ growth it finds a ready market for bobbin making and other turnery purposes.

The most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even deep sand. The tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow tree. The timber is white, smooth and free from grain. It is used for curtain rings, churns, butter prints, backs of violins, founders’ patterns, cutting boards, and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture. For calendar machines it is especially valuable.

The =Sweet= or =Spanish Chestnut= is largely cultivated for the value of the timber it produces. It thrives best on deep gravelly soil or on granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil, and with a southern or western exposure. The timber is of excellent quality and lasts well either in water or above or below ground. It is often substituted for that of the oak, and is extensively employed for mill timber, bridges, fencing of all kinds, posts, stakes, casks, and for hop poles.

The Spanish Chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is of fair size it finds a ready market, though at a lower figure than that of the oak.

Unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is much reduced in value owing to cup shake.

=Elm=, both English and Scotch, are extensively planted for the value of timber produced.

The timber of the English elm is of a rich brown colour, hard, tough and usually twisted in the grain. Owing to the strength of its lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for ship’s riggings, while it furnishes naves for wheels, coffin boards, furniture, pumps, piles, and is employed largely by the wheelwright. For using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country.

The wood of the Scotch or Wych elm is considered to be more valuable than that of the English species, and is used for similar purposes and also as a substitute for ash. It is very liable to become rotten at the core.

=The Alder and its Uses.=—Whether viewed from a strictly commercial standpoint, for its justly recognized capacity for thriving luxuriantly where few other trees could exist, or for its ornamental qualities, the common alder will be found to rank high among British forest trees. It usually attains to a height of from 50 ft. to 60 ft., with a stout, well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and fluted. The branches have an upward inclination, and are well clothed with roundly wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep, dark green colour. With age the bark usually assumes a dark brown, or almost black, colour. The alder is found in all parts of Europe, North Africa, and from Asia to Japan. For planting in wet, even swampy, situations, where only a very limited number of trees could eke out an existence, the alder is of particular value, and it is in such situations that it attains to the largest size and produces the greatest quantity of timber. Even in situations where the poplar and willow find a difficulty in battling with the excessive and stagnant moisture the alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces itself freely from seed. As an ornamental tree the alder is not much in request, although the stately habit and ample deep-green foliage render it of value in that respect. The fine old specimens by the river and stream sides at Esher Place in Surrey, have a beauty that is quite their own, and it is in such tranquil situations that the tree is seen to perfection—the beauty of form and picturesque appearance causing it to be unrivalled in river and lake scenery. The tree is readily propagated and comparatively cheap in consequence, grows rapidly after becoming established, and is not subject to disease or premature decay.

Though soft, the timber of the alder is in much request, and in consequence numerous wants are supplied by it. It is very durable under water, and for this reason is largely employed for piles, bridge foundations, water pipes, and for lining the banks of rapid running streams and rivers. The celebrated bridge of the Rialto, at Venice, was, according to Evelyn, built on piles of alder wood, while the city of Ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same wood. For herring barrel staves the wood is also in request, as it is for mill bobbins and turnery work. In cabinet work and for cheap furniture alder wood is largely used, while as it does not readily split, boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently made of the same wood.

The beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes.

In Wales, and throughout the Midland counties, large quantities of alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles, which, after being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled, are sent by rail to several of the Lancashire towns to be finished off. Throughout Ireland—chiefly the north—large numbers of clog soles, made of alder, are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots; indeed, in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry.

The bark of the alder is used in tanning leather, though in much smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago, when oak bark fetched as much as £10 a ton, and when none of the chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market. Excellent gunpowder is made of the wood, said to be second only in quality to that prepared from the dogwood. The young shoots, according to the peculiar way in which they are prepared, are employed in dyeing red, brown, yellow, and black.

Alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth, and is seldom grown to very large dimensions. For the clogger, turner, or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years’ growth, while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs rapidly from the stools.

The =Birch=.—It is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of the birch, for no other native tree, not even the Scotch pine, ascends to such elevations in Britain. The higher the tree ascends the more shrub-like it becomes, until on very exposed rocky sites at great altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height.

As regards soil, the birch is by no means particular, for we find it succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character. The largest individual specimens always, however, occur at not too high an altitude, and on soil of a light, loamy nature, an abundance of moisture being still further favourable to quick development. For planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes, but particularly where the soil is thin and poor, the birch is a most valuable tree. Its growth is fairly rapid, and it does not suffer to any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks. As a coppice tree it is also valuable.

The timber of the birch, though of little value for general estate purposes, is largely employed in the arts and manufactures. It is much used for thread bobbins, turnery work, shoe pegs, hoops, and fish barrels, while it makes excellent firewood, and yields superior charcoal for smelting purposes. In Wales large quantities of birch wood are cut into clog soles, while the sabots used by the French peasantry are also made of that wood. When of large size and good figure, furniture and veneers are made of the wood, and on the Continent felloes for carriage wheels. Brooms and switches are made of the smaller branches or sprays, while the bark is used for tanning, and an oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known and fragrant Russian leather.

[Illustration: STEM OF THE TRUE “CRICKET BAT” WILLOW (_Salix cærulea_)]

The =White= or =Huntingdon Willow= (_Salix alba_).—Whether for ornament or utility the White or Huntingdon Willow must be considered as one of our most valuable trees. The timber sells readily at all prices up to 10_s_. per cubic foot, and when it is considered that the tree will succeed in dampish ground where most other species decline to grow, and that it is of rapid growth, attaining maturity in less than forty years, its value in economic planting will be recognized. At the outset it may be well to point out that the wood of the particular willow from which the best class of cricket bats are manufactured sells at a higher rate than any other timber that is cultivated in this country. There are many kinds of willows found growing throughout the British Isles, but one alone produces the particular class of wood from which first-class bats are turned out. Until quite lately the timber of the White or Huntingdon Willow (_Salix alba_) was largely used in the making of cricket bats, but it has been found that a cross between that species and the crack willow (_S. fragilis_), and named _S. cærulea_, produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade cricket bats. In the trade the “Cricket Bat Willow,” as it is now known throughout England, is popularly designated as the close-barked willow in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack willow. Confusion generally exists in determining the various forms of willow, but in _S. cærulea_ the branches incline upwards; indeed, the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth, and the branches also have an upward tendency. The bark is a dark grey, with long, straight, narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term “close-barked” is derived. The leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape, while an unerring point of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree produces only female flowers. It may be well to mention in connexion with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow, _S. cærulea_. The great importance of recognizing and growing for purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any but the true “close-barked” tree, and the English bat-maker is keen to recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires, and will not stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind.

As showing the value in England of the timber of the true bat-making willow, it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come under my notice as much as 16_s._ per cubit ft., or six times the price of the best oak, has been paid for trees of the true _S. cærulea_. A single tree growing in London lately sold at £10, and in Hertfordshire eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of £81, while £20 was refused for four trees growing in a wood in Essex. Such prices are, however, exceptional, though on a visit to two of the largest bat-making establishments in the metropolis I was told that for several years past the average price paid for willow worked out at 6_s._ per cubit foot. A well-known grower tells us that if planted in suitable soil a “set” or cutting, which usually costs 1_s._ 6_d._, will in fifteen years be worth about £6.

The home of the true bat-making willow is in the Eastern English counties, and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing to purchase the most valuable timber for his special work. The propagation of the bat-making willow is simple, either by rooted cuttings or “sets,” the latter being the best and cheapest method. “Sets” are usually from 12 to 20 ft. long, with a basal diameter of, say, 3 ins., the best being got from pollarded trees, and straight, clean, branchless shoots are preferable. They should be stripped of all side branches for about three-fourths of their length and only cut in spring. By placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for about a month rootlets will be emitted, when they may be planted in previously prepared holes, which are formed by driving an iron rod or stake in the ground for a distance of, say, 2½ ft.

The =Poplar=.—Several species of poplar are valuable for the timber they produce, as also for their rapidity of growth and succeeding in low-lying, damp ground. When clean grown and of large size the timber sells readily at prices which vary from 1_s_. to 1_s_. 6_d_. per ft.

Probably the most valuable species is the white poplar (_Populus alba_), though the black Italian (_P. monilifera_) produces excellent timber for which there is generally a demand.

From a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country. The timber of the lime, hornbeam, walnut and one or two others at times sells at a fair price, but the small quantity offered shows that they have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value of the plantations was being considered.

CONIFEROUS TREES

Amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for profitable planting. The following, so far as is known, are the only species to be recommended:—

The =Larch= (_Larix europæa_).—Both for and against the larch much has been written and said, particularly of late years; but, however much has been said in commendation of it, there can be no doubt that to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of British forestry would be a task of some difficulty. When we combine its great, almost peculiar, aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of soils, altitudes, and diversities of climate, its long-established value as a timber tree, rapidity of growth and ease of culture, it is clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked on a par with the larch. Unfortunately, however, of late years the larch has suffered much from disease, the predisposing causes of which may mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather, and the rapidly degenerating state of the tree—the latter chiefly brought about by an injudicious selection of seed. By far too little attention has been paid to this important matter, the result being that weakness and tenderness have got into the constitution of the tree, and it is thus unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost. So weakened, blight, fungus, and ulceration find a footing, and thus the fell disease is generated about which so much has been said and written of late years. In my own opinion, strengthened by careful investigation and research, induced tenderness in the constitution of the larch is the primary cause of disease, cold winds and frost being the destructive agents, and ulceration the direct consequence.

Injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most injurious results. In corroboration of this, it may be stated that natural or self-sown trees are, in this country, almost exempt from disease.

The variableness of our spring weather is, no doubt, one of the predisposing causes of disease, for although no degree of cold experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless, yet few are more sensitive when in young foliage.

The durability of the wood of the larch is well known, and this peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years’ growth. As compared with Scotch and spruce firs, the wood of the larch is about twice as durable—a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty years’ growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years, while that of the spruce lasts about eleven years, and the Scotch seven years. This refers especially to rails, not to posts, which decay in about half that time. For mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood makes it much sought after, this being further enhanced by its extreme lightness, the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only 34 lbs. It takes a beautiful polish, works with great freedom, and, when fully seasoned, is not at all liable to twist or warp.

Substitutes for the larch have often been recommended, but, in the true sense of the word, there are practically none, although, doubtless, some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities.

=Sitka or Silver Spruce= (_Picea Sitchensis_).—From a purely commercial point of view the Sitka or Silver Spruce is probably the most valuable of any of the family to which it belongs. It is a tree of noble growth in this country, several specimens being well over 100 ft. in height and with boles that girth fully 10 ft. at a yard from the ground, these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years. When used as a standard, the tree is one of great beauty, the stiff and rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side. It delights in a cool, moist loam and not too exposed situation, but when grown on gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected by red spider. The timber, which is remarkably light for its bulk, strong and flexible, is of great value in the making of aeroplanes, and special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the London market.

The =Corsican Pine= (_Pinus laricio_).—This is, undoubtedly, one of the best all-round conifers that has found its way into the British Isles. It is of very rapid growth, and well suited for planting, even in the most exposed and wind-swept situations; a non-fastidious subject as to soil, and a valuable timber-producer.

As to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at high altitudes, ample evidence can be adduced on many an English and Scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing crop. In North Wales, on one of the Snowdon range of hills, I have planted the Corsican pine in great quantity. The plantation was, for the greater part, fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind, which at times blows hard and long, and sweeps the hillsides with terrific fury; yet, under such conditions, the Corsican pine has done remarkably well—in fact, proved itself to be well suited for planting at high altitudes on our English hillsides. Even at the highest point of the woodlands in question, this pine has thriven in a manner that is quite surprising, and thrown its stoutest branches out into the very teeth of the blast, and that where hardly a hardwood tree could survive, and even the Scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost unceasing storms. Other notable instances of how well the Corsican does on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out—such as at Blair Athol, in Perthshire, at 700 ft., where it is thriving amazingly; and again in Yorkshire, one of the most barren and wind-swept of English counties, where in parts, it grows with a luxuriance that is almost unparalleled in any other part of Britain. The timber produced by the Corsican pine in this country is strong, tough, elastic, very resinous, and easily worked; this is speaking of trees of fully fifty years’ growth. It thrives well on gravelly soil, some of the largest specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a disused gravel-pit.

It may be said that the Corsican pine is perfectly hardy, peculiarly well suited for planting in exposed situations, a rapid and valuable timber-producer, a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from seed, and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice of soil that could be named—all qualities of the highest value in a timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any other species.

In France extensive plantations of the Corsican have been formed, while it has also been introduced extensively into the State forests by the Prussian Government.

[Illustration: THE WEYMOUTH PINE AT GWYDYR CASTLE]

The =Weymouth Pine= (_P. Strobus_), whether viewed in an ornamental or economic aspect, must be considered as another of the most valuable pines that have been introduced into this country. Admit, we must, that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome tree has been attended with no very promising results; but then it should be remembered that, like most other trees, the Weymouth pine has its likes and dislikes of soil, as well, indeed, as of aspect and altitude. That it has succeeded well, and produced an unusually large quantity of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country cannot be denied; but then in such places its peculiar wants have been attended to. At Gwydyr Castle, in North Wales, the tree succeeds admirably, specimens fully 90 ft. in height, straight as arrows, branchless for three-fourths their length, and fully 8 ft. in girth at breast-high, being not uncommon. The soil is rocky debris, largely intermixed with vegetable refuse, fairly moist at all times, but without stagnant moisture.

On the western borders of Ross-shire, at Strathkyle, where the altitudes vary from 100 ft. to 1,200 ft., the Weymouth pine is making rapid progress. We do not wish it to be inferred that the Weymouth pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed situations; but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country.

A comparison of the wood produced by the Weymouth pine in this country with that sent to the late Colonial and Indian Exhibition showed but slight differences, and nothing more than could naturally be expected between a mature and an only partially-developed tree.

The =Scotch Pine= (_P. sylvestris_) must on no account be omitted from our list; as, especially for planting in exposed situations where few other trees could succeed, it is one of the best. Probably the principal reason why this tree has not been more generally cultivated, is on account of the low-priced timber it produces, for, of late years, it has been difficult, except in certain favoured districts, to get rid of it at a remunerative price. With the war, matters are quite different. The finest quality of Scotch pine timber, such as that produced in some of the northern Scottish counties, no doubt, is even now fairly remunerative; but, generally speaking, that grown throughout Southern Scotland, England as a whole, and also Ireland, is of so inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative price. No doubt, however, this pine will continue to be largely planted wherever shelter and ornament are of first importance: and rightly so, for few others are so well able to withstand cold, cutting blasts at high altitudes.

The =Douglas Fir= (_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_) is, in certain situations, a valuable timber-producing tree—indeed, as regards the actual production of timber in a given time, it is, perhaps, ahead of any other tree grown in this country. From measurements we have taken, the actual production of timber during fifty years was 240 ft., or nearly 5 ft. per year for half a century. In a plantation of the Douglas fir in Wales, planted twenty-two years, we found the average dimensions to be as follows: Height, 76 ft.; girth of stem at 24 ft., 4 ft.; cubic contents, fully 50 ft. The timber produced in this country is of excellent quality, being light but strong, works very readily, has a pleasant yellowish tinge, and takes on a good polish. That the Douglas fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in this country is already well known; but to grow it in anything like a satisfactory way it must be planted in sheltered hollows, for extensive experience has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving the storm, even at a few feet above the sea-level. Long ago we strongly advocated the forming of plantations of _P. Douglasii_ alone, or with some other tree of about equally rapid growth, for, when mixed up with the general run of our forest trees, the leader, on overtopping those of its neighbours, soon gets broken over, or otherwise presents an almost branchless, whip-handle-like appearance. We do not wish to say one word against this our favourite fir: but the truth must be told, and our own experience, gained principally on a low-lying seaside estate, where the tree was annually planted by the thousand, is that _P. Douglasii_ must occupy a sheltered situation if either ornament or utility be considered as points of first importance.

The =Giant Arborvitæ= (_Thuja gigantea_) is fast coming to the front as a British timber tree, and has already, at the hands of far-seeing planters, received a fair amount of attention. After a fair and impartial trial on our part, we have found it to be perfectly hardy, even at high altitudes, a fast grower and rapid timber-producer, a non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is planted, and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of trees. The quality of timber produced in this country is such as to warrant us in speaking highly of it, it being of a desirable yellow colour, fine-grained, easily worked, remarkably durable, and light in proportion to its bulk. From the measurements of fully twenty-four specimens scattered over an English park, we have found that the average annual rate of growth is 22 in., but even this is exceeded by young trees.

The =Norway Spruce= (_Picea excelsa_).—Whether as a hardy, shelter-giving tree, or for the quantity of fairly good timber it produces, the common or Norway spruce must ever rank high in the list of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the British Isles. That it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all, as it luxuriates at high altitudes, and where fully exposed to our worst winds, and at the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found of excellent quality, well suited for general constructive purposes. As a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce, and when planted along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and protection it affords is quite surprising.

The =Silver Fir= (_Abies pectinata_) is another of those trees that have of late years fallen into disrepute, mainly owing to the increased importation of foreign timber. That it is an excellent and highly remunerative tree is unquestionable, and the very fact of its thriving luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should make it, in this country at least, of great value as a forest tree.

With the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway sleepers—in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear and tear quite as well as those of Baltic timber, alongside of which they were placed. For roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained great fame, as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber.

The coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can be recommended for profitable planting in this country.

The Atlantic Cedar and Japanese Larch might be added to the list, but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these prominently to notice.

Twenty-five years ago, at the instigation of the then Earl of Derby, the writer formed several plantations on the Holwood Estate in Kent. At the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not formed with the object of producing valuable timber, but rather for the ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property. The trees used were the Scotch, Corsican, Austrian and Weymouth pines, Douglas fir, the larch, and several species of hardwoods. As all have succeeded well under exactly similar conditions, the following notes as to the rate of growth and production of timber, both of which are unusually great, during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive.

Previously to being planted the land, which may best be described as a hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered, was let out for rough grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit.

The cost per acre of forming these plantations was:—

£ _s._ _d._ Pitting, 2,722 at 1_s._ per 100 1 7 2 Planting 1 1 0 Trees, at 40_s._ per 1,000 5 8 0 ——————————————— £7 16 2

This price may appear both high and low, but in connexion with the former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted were about 16 in. high, the others about 3 ft., all being placed 4 ft. apart. Owing to the land having recently been under cultivation and labour at that time being cheap in the district, the opening of pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate, the size of each being 12 in. square and 9 in. deep. After being planted the trees required little attention for the first six years, at which period they averaged 8 ft. in height, and the shade occasioned by the branch spread had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth.

As the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter, the retention of the lower branches of the trees, at least along the margin, was imperative, and in order to ensure this, early thinning was engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time, always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for branch development, those inwards, in order to induce clean growth, being left much closer on the ground. Though in the latter case the volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins, yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and clean-stemmed, the only exception being the Corsican pine which, even when isolated, has little inclination to form stout side branches.

The soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for the growth of the pines, none of which suffered from disease or insect attack, though the Weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with which it is usually attacked around London. The larch was practically free from canker.

During recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of trees, these being as follows:—

Austrian pine, average height, 46 ft.; cubic contents, 9 ft. Corsican ” ” ” 51 ft.; ” ” 11 ft. Scotch ” ” ” 45 ft.; ” ” 8 ft. Weymouth ” ” ” 42 ft.; ” ” 6 ft. Larch ” ” 47 ft.; ” ” 8 ft.

It will thus be seen that the Corsican pine has surpassed all the others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced; and in viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the Corsican pines soar quite 6 ft. above those of their neighbours. The Austrian comes next in the quantity of timber produced, but not in height; and the larch and Scotch are of about equal size, the Weymouth being equal to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem. But the larch beats all in value of timber, for, while that of the various species of pine was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure, the larch wood was readily disposed of at a fair valuation.

My experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of the pine family excepting the Scotch. This may be owing to prejudice or want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the Corsican and Weymouth; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that the timber of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood rates. That of the Scotch being better known finds a ready market at about half the price of larch, which latter, after all, is the most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this country, and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply.