Part 1

# The New Gresham Encyclopedia. A to Amide: Vol. 1 Part 1 ### By Various

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Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net

Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; [n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.

THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME I

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_EDITORS_

ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B.es L.

R. F. PATTERSON, M.A.(Cantab.), D.Litt.(Glasgow).

JOHN DOUGALL, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.; Gold Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

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ALGAE

[Illustration: 1, The very broad Ulva. 2, Cornucopia. 3, Caulerpa Cactoides. 4, Acetabularia Mediterranea. 5, Bladder-locks. 6, Long-stalked Laminaria. 7, Sugared Laminaria. 8, Bladder Wrack. 9, Serrated Wrack. 10, Gulf-weed. 11, Thalassiophyllum Clathrus. 12, Forked Dictyota. 13, Medicinal Coralline. 14, Corallina Rubens. 15, Delesseria Lyalii. 16, Nitophyllum Crosieri. 17, Membrane-leaved Phyllophira. 18, Peacock's-tail Padina. 19, Banded Taonia.]

THE

NEW . GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME . I

[Illustration]

_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING COMPANY . _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND LONDON W.C.2. 1922

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LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

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VOLUME I

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PLATES

Page ALGAE (_Coloured_) _Frontispiece_

AEROPLANE 44

AIR-SHIPS 72

ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles) 152

ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) 220

ARCHITECTURE 224

BACTERIA 348

MAPS IN COLOUR

AFRICA 52

ASIA 274

AUSTRALIA 316

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CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I

ADOLPHE ABRAHAMS, O.B.E., B.A., M.D., late Major, R.A.M.C.

GEORGE E. ALLAN, D.Sc., Lecturer in Electricity, University of Glasgow.

R. E. ANDERSON, Maker of Artificial Limbs.

F. L. ATTENBOROUGH, B.A., Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

F. F. P. BISACRE, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.

R. M. BROWN, B.Sc.

GRENVILLE A. J. COLE, F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Royal College of Science, Ireland.

ARTHUR O. COOKE, Author of _A Book of Dovecotes_.

J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A., F.C.P., former Principal of The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

MONTAGU DRUMMOND, M.A., Lecturer in Botany, University of Glasgow.

CHARLES J. FFOULKES, B.Litt., Major, R.M.; Curator of the Armouries, Tower of London.

F. MORLEY FLETCHER, Director, College of Art, Edinburgh.

Rev. WILLIAM FULTON, D.D., B.Sc., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Aberdeen.

L. HADEN GUEST, M.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

R. N. HAYGARTH, B.A., B.Sc., Queens' College, Cambridge.

W. A. HISLOP, M.B., late Captain, R.A.M.C.

DONALD A. MACKENZIE, Folklorist; Author of _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, &c.

MAGNUS MACLEAN, M.A., D.Sc., M.Inst.E.E., M.Inst.C.E., Editor of _Modern Electrical Engineering_, &c.

W. LOCKWOOD MARSH, O.B.E., M.A., A.F.R.Ae.S., Lieutenant-Colonel; late R.A.F.; Secretary of the Royal Aeronautical Society.

D. J. MACKELLOR, B.Sc., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

R. F. PATTERSON, M.A., D.Litt., formerly Charles Oldham Shakespeare Scholar, Cambridge University.

ANGELO S. RAPPOPORT, Ph.D., B. es L.

JAMES RITCHIE, M.A., M.D., Professor of Bacteriology, University of Edinburgh.

W. D. ROBIESON, M.A.

JOHN J. ROSS, M.A., F.R.A.S.

GEORGE SMITH, Procurator Fiscal.

G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of London.

C. S. STOOKS, D.S.O., Major, Indian Army; Instructor in Military Organization, Royal Military College, Sandhurst.

M. M. J. SUTHERLAND, D.Sc., F.I.C.

THOMAS G. WRIGHT, LL.B., Professor of Mercantile Law, University of Glasgow.

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

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The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne, G_oe_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger. M_ue_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

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THE NEW GRESHAM ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME I

A, the first letter in many alphabets. The sound most commonly belonging to it, as in French, Italian, German, &c., is that which is heard in _father_, pronounced short or long. In English the letter is made to represent at least seven sounds, as in _father_, _mat_, _mate_, _mare_, _many_, _ball_, _what_, besides being used in such digraphs as _ea_ in _heat_, _oa_ in _boat_.--A, in music, is the sixth note in the diatonic scale of C, and stands when in perfect tune to the latter note in the ratio of 3/5 to 1. The second string of the violin is tuned to this note.

A 1, a symbol attached to vessels of the highest class in Lloyd's register of shipping, A referring to the hull of the vessel, 1 to the rigging and whole equipment. When A 1 has a number prefixed, as 100 A 1, 90 A 1, the number denotes that the vessel is built according to certain specifications. See _Shipbuilding_.

AA ([:a]) (Old Ger. _aha_, water; allied to Lat. _aqua_, water), the name of a great many streams of Central and Northern Europe.

AACHEN ([:a]'_h_[.e]n). See _Aix-la-Chapelle_.

AALAND ISLANDS. See _Aland Islands_.

AALBORG ([=o]l'bor_h_: 'eel-town'), a seaport of Denmark, in Jutland, on the Liimfiord, see of a bishop, with iron-founding, distilling, fishing, &c. Pop. 33,449.

AALEN ([:a]'l[.e]n), a town of Germany in Wuerttemberg, which manufactures woollen and linen goods. It has important iron-works and tanneries. Pop. 11,347.

AALESUND ([=o]'le-s[u:]nd), seaport and fishing centre on the west coast of Norway, on a small island. Pop. 13,858.

AALI PASHA. See _Ali Pasha_.

AALST ([:a]lst). See _Alost_.

AAR, or AARE ([:a]r), the name of several European rivers, of which the chief (180 miles long) is a tributary of the Rhine, next to it and the Rhone the longest river in Switzerland. It has its origin from the Upper and Lower Glaciers of the Aar, in the Bernese Alps, traverses Lakes Brienz and Thun, and receives the Saane, Reuss, Limmat, &c. On it are Interlaken, Thun, Bern, Solothurn, and Aarau, to which, as to the canton of Aargau, it gives its name.

AARAU ([:a]'rou), a well-built and finely-situated town in Switzerland, capital of canton Aargau, on the River Aar. Pop. 9536.

AARD-VARK ([:a]rd'v[.a]rk: earth-pig), Dutch name for a burrowing insect-eating animal of South Africa, _Orycter[)o]pus capensis_, order Edentata, resembling the ant-eater and armadillo. It is called also _ground-hog_ and _Cape pig_.

[Illustration: Aardwolf (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_)]

AARDWOLF ([:a]rd'w[u:]lf: earth-wolf) (_Prot[)e]les crist[=a]tus_), a burrowing carnivore of S. and E. Africa, allied to the hyenas and civets. It feeds on carrion, small mammals, insects, &c.

AARE. See _Aar_.

AARGAU ([:a]r'gou), or ARGOVIE ([.a]r-go-v[=e]), a northern canton of Switzerland; area, 543 sq. miles; hilly, well wooded, abundantly watered by the Aar and its tributaries, and well cultivated. Pop. 236,860. German is almost universally spoken. Capital, Aarau.

AARHUUS ([=o]r'h[:o]s), a seaport and ancient town of Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland. It has a fine Gothic cathedral, a good harbour, and manufactures woollens, gloves, hats, tobacco, &c. Pop. 65,858.

AARON ([=a]'ron), of the tribe of Levi, brother of Moses. At Sinai, when the people became impatient at the long-continued absence of Moses, he complied with their request by making a golden calf, and thus became involved with them in the guilt of gross idolatry. The office of high-priest, which he first filled, was made hereditary in his family. He died at Mount Hor at the age of 123, and was succeeded by his son Eleazer.

AARON'S BEARD. See _Saint John's Wort_ and _Toad-flax_.

AARON'S ROD. See _Golden-rod_ and _Mullein_.

AASEN ([=o]'zen), Ivar Andreas, Norwegian poet and philologist, was born in 1813 and died in 1896. He wrote miscellaneous poems and a drama, but he is chiefly known as the originator of the patriotic movement known as the _Maulstroev_. He endeavoured to give Norway a literary language distinct from the Danish, which has long served as the literary and official language of the country. This he attempted to do mainly by the help of the native dialects, which he studied thoroughly, setting forth their grammar in special works and embodying their vocabulary in his _Norsk Ordbog med Dansk Forklaring_ (Norse Dictionary, with Explanations in Danish, 1873), supplemented by the _Norsk Ordbog_ of Hans Ross (1890-2). Numbers of poems, tales, &c., have been written in the language, of which Aasen was in a sense the inventor.

AASVAER ([=o]s'v[=a]r), a group of small islands off the Norwegian coast, under the Arctic Circle, where there is an important herring-fishery.

AB, the eleventh month of the Jewish civil, the fifth of the ecclesiastical, year--part of July and part of August.

ABABDA, or ABABDEH (abab'de) (GEBADEI of Pliny), a nomadic African race inhabiting Upper Egypt and part of Nubia, between the Nile and the Red Sea, dark-brown in colour. Their language is Arabic and they are Mahommedans in religion. They number about 40,000.

AB'ACA, or MANILLA HEMP, a strong fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a kind of plantain (_Musa text[)i]lis_) which grows in the Indian Archipelago, and is cultivated in the Philippines. The outer fibres of the leaf-stalks are made into strong and durable ropes, the inner into various fine fabrics.

AB'ACO, GREAT and LITTLE, two islands of the Bahamas group, (q.v.). Pop. about 4000.

[Illustration: Abacus for Calculations]

[Illustration: Norman Capital--_a_, the Abacus]

AB'ACUS, a Latin term applied to an apparatus used in elementary schools for facilitating arithmetical operations, consisting of a number of parallel cords or wires, upon which balls or beads are strung, the uppermost wire being appropriated to units, the next to tens, &c.--The uppermost member or division of the capital of a column, immediately under the architrave.

ABAD'DON (Heb. destruction), the name given in _Rev._ ix. 11 as that of the angel of the bottomless pit, otherwise called _Apollyon_. In _Job_, xxvi, 6, it designates the underworld, or Hades.

ABAKANSK', a fortified place in Siberia, near the Upper Yenisei, founded by Peter the Great in 1707.

ABALONE (ab-a-l[=o]'ne), a name in California for a species of ear-shell (Haliotis) that furnishes mother-of-pearl.

AB'ANA, or AMANAH, one of the two rivers of Damascus mentioned in the Bible (2 _Kings_, v, 12). See _Barada_.

ABAN'DONMENT, a term of marine insurance, employed to designate the case where the party insured gives up his whole interest in the property to the insurer, and claims as for a total loss.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. G. Phillimore, _Marine Insurance_, in _Encyclopedia of the Laws of England_, vol. viii; C. R. Tyser, _Law relating to Losses under a Policy of Marine Insurance_.

AB'ANO, a village of North Italy, 5 miles from Padua, famous for its mud-baths and warm springs. It is supposed to be the birthplace of Livy.

ABA'RIM, a mountain range of Eastern Palestine, including Nebo, on which Moses died.

ABATEMENT, in law, has various significations. _Abatement of nuisances_ is the remedy allowed to a person injured by a public or private nuisance, of destroying or removing it himself. A _plea in abatement_ is brought forward by a defendant when he wishes to defeat or quash a particular action on some formal or technical ground. Abatement, in mercantile law, is an allowance, deduction, or discount made for prompt payment or other reason.

AB'ATTIS, or ABATIS, in field engineering, a mass of trees cut down and laid with their branches turned towards the enemy in such a way as to form a defence for troops stationed behind them.

ABATTOIR (ab-at-w[:a]r'). See _Slaughter-house_.

ABAUZIT, Firmin ([.a]-b[=o]-z[=e]), a French Protestant scholar, was born in 1679 and died in 1767. He lived chiefly at Geneva, but visited England and was highly esteemed by Newton, who considered him not unfit to be judge between himself and Leibnitz in the quarrel as to the invention of the integral and differential calculus. Collections of his works were published at Geneva (1770) and at London (1773).

ABBA, a Syrian word equivalent to 'father', which, being applied in the Eastern Church to monks, superiors of monks, and other ecclesiastics, gave rise to the word _abbot_. In the Syriac and Coptic Churches it is given to bishops.

ABBADIE ([.a]b-[.a]-d[=e]), Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', French travellers, born in Dublin in 1810 and 1815 respectively. They lived for years in Abyssinia, and published valuable works on that country: Arnaud, _Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_; Antoine, _Geodesie de la Haute-Ethiopie_, &c. Arnaud died in 1893, Antoine in 1897.

ABBAS I, the _Great_, Shah or King of Persia, born in 1557, ascended the throne in 1586, at a time when the Turks and hordes of Usbek Tartars had made great encroachments on the country. Having defeated the Usbeks, recovered the provinces overrun by them, and reduced a great part of Afghanistan, he made war against the Turks, and in 1605 defeated them near Bussorah, thus getting back all the lost provinces. He extended his rule beyond Persia proper, and at his death in 1628 his dominions stretched from the Tigris to the Indus. He is looked upon by the Persians as their greatest sovereign.

ABBAS II, HILMI, ex-Khedive of Egypt, was born in 1874. He is the eldest son of Tewfik Pasha, and succeeded his father in 1892. During his reign he adopted an unfriendly attitude towards England, but he failed in his attempt to form an anti-British Cabinet in 1893. On 19th Dec., 1914, the British Government issued a proclamation deposing Abbas Hilmi and conferring the title of Sultan of Egypt upon Hussein Kamil, eldest living prince of the family of Mohammed Ali-Hussein Kamil, who died in 1917. See _Egypt_.

ABBAS MIRZA, a Persian prince and soldier, was the son of the shah Feth Ali; born 1783, died 1833; he greatly distinguished himself in the wars against Russia.

ABBASIDS, or ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz), the name of the second Arabian dynasty which supplanted the Ommiades. It traced its descent from Abbas (born 566, died 652), uncle of Mahomet, and gave thirty-seven caliphs to Bagdad between 749 and 1258. Harun al Rashid was a member of this dynasty. See _Caliphs_.

ABBATE ([.a]b-b[:a]'t[=a]), the Italian term corresponding to _Abbe_.

ABBE ([.a]b-[=a]), a French word for abbot, or for anyone regularly wearing the clerical dress. Before the Revolution, all who had studied theology, either with the view of becoming ordained clergymen or merely of obtaining some ecclesiastical appointment or benefice, were generally so designated. Marked out by their special dress, a short, violet-coloured robe, they were seen everywhere--at court, the ball, the theatre, and in private families, where they acted sometimes as tutors and sometimes as confidential advisers. Others, again, adopted the literary profession or became teachers in the higher educational establishments.

ABBE, Cleveland, American meteorologist and astronomer, born at New York in 1838, and educated at Harvard. He held various positions in connection with observatories and other institutions in America, and was for some time chief meteorologist in the United States Weather Bureau. He wrote much on meteorology and kindred subjects. He died in 1916. His works include: _The Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere_; _Relations between Climates and Crops_, &c.

ABBEOKU'TA, a town of West Africa, in the Lagos Province of S. Nigeria, on the Ogun River, and on the railway from Lagos to N. Nigeria, 45 miles north of Lagos, consists chiefly of mud houses, surrounded by a mud wall. Pop. 50,000 to 100,000.

AB'BESS. See _Abbey_ and _Abbot_.

ABBEVILLE (ancient ABBATIS VILLA), a town of France, department of the Somme, on the River Somme (which is here tidal), 108 miles N.N.W. of Paris. The town is first mentioned in the ninth century, when it belonged to the Abbey of St. Riquier. It has a Gothic church (St. Vulfran) (begun in the fifteenth century and completed in the seventeenth), which has a magnificent west front in the Flamboyant style. It manufactures woollens, sail-cloth, chemicals, &c. Pop. 20,373.

AB'BEY, a monastery or religious community of the highest class, governed by an _abbot_, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community, superintended by an _abbess_. An abbey invariably included a church. A priory differed from an abbey only in being scarcely so extensive an establishment, and was governed by a _prior_. In the English conventual cathedral establishments, as Canterbury, Norwich, Ely, &c., the archbishops or bishops held the abbot's place, the immediate governor of the monastery being called a prior. Some priories sprang originally from the more important abbeys, and remained under the jurisdiction of the abbots; but subsequently any real distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. The greater abbeys formed most complete and extensive establishments, including not only the church and other buildings devoted to the monastic life and its daily requirements, such as the refectory or eating-room, the dormitories or sleeping-rooms, the room for social intercourse, the school for novices, the scribes' cells, library, &c., but also workshops, storehouses, mills, cattle and poultry sheds, dwellings for artisans, labourers, and other servants, infirmary, guest-house, &c. Among the most famous abbeys on the continent of Europe were those of Cluny, Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; St. Galle in Switzerland, and Fulda in Germany; the most noteworthy English abbeys were those of Westminster, St. Mary's of York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley; and of Scotland, Melrose, Paisley, and Arbroath.

[Illustration: Plan of Fountains Abbey]

ABBIATEGRASSO ([.a]b-b[=e]-[:a]'t[=a]-gr[.a]s-s[=o]), a town in the north of Italy, 15 miles W.S.W. of Milan. Pop. 13,148.

AB'BOT (from the Syriac _abba_, father), the head of an abbey (see _Abbey_), the lady of similar rank being called _abbess_ (_abbatissa_). An abbess, however, was not, like the abbot, allowed to exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthood, such as preaching, confessing, &c.; nor did abbesses ever succeed in freeing themselves from the control of their diocesan bishop. In the early age of monastic institutions (_circ._ A.D. 300-600) the monks were not priests, but simply laymen who retired from the world to live in common, and the abbot was also a layman. In the course of time the abbots were usually ordained, and when an abbey was directly attached to a cathedral the bishop was also the abbot, but the functions devolving on the head of a monastery were, in this case, performed by a prior. At first the abbeys were more remarkable for their numbers than for their magnitude, but afterwards many of them were large and richly endowed, and the heads of such establishments became personages of no small influence and power, more especially after the abbots succeeded (by the eleventh century) in freeing themselves from the jurisdiction of the bishop of their diocese. Hence families of the highest rank might be seen eagerly striving to obtain the titles of abbot and abbess for their members. The great object was to obtain control over the revenues of the abbeys, and for this purpose recourse was had to the device of holding them under a kind of trust, or, as it was called, _in commendam_. According to the original idea, the abbot _in commendam_, or 'commendator', was merely a temporary trustee, who drew the whole or part of the revenues during a vacancy, and was bound to apply them to specific purposes; but ultimately the commendator or lay abbot in many instances held the appointment for life, and was allowed to apply the whole or a large portion of the revenues to his own private use. Many of the abbots vied with the bishops and nobility in rank and dignity. In England abbots long sat in the House of Lords, ranking next after barons. Seventeen of them were present on 28th June, 1539, the last occasion when the abbots as a body sat in Parliament. The Reformation introduced vast changes, not only in Protestant countries, where abbeys and all other monastic establishments were generally suppressed, but even in countries which still continued Roman Catholic; many sovereigns, whilst displaying their zeal for the Roman Catholic Church by persecuting its opponents, did not scruple to imitate them in the confiscation of Church property.

ABBOT (or Lord) OF MISRULE, the personage who took the chief part in the Christmas revelries of the English populace before the Reformation. In Scotland he was called Abbot of Unreason.

ABBOT, George, Archbishop of Canterbury, was born in 1562 and died in 1633. He studied at Oxford, assisted in the translation of the Bible, was made Bishop of Lichfield in 1609, next year Bishop of London, and in 1611 Archbishop of Canterbury. He retained the favour of James I to the last, but after the accession of Charles I his influence at Court was superseded by that of Laud. He published several works, chiefly theological, and _A Brief Description of the Whole World_ (1599).

AB'BOTSFORD, the country-seat of Sir Walter Scott, on the south bank of the Tweed, in Roxburghshire, 3 miles from Melrose, in the midst of picturesque scenery, forming an extensive and irregular pile in the Scottish baronial style of architecture.--_Abbotsford Club_, a club established at Edinburgh for printing works throwing light on matters of history or literature connected with the writings of Sir Walter Scott; issued 34 vols. 1835-64.

AB'BOTT, Rev. Edwin, D.D., prolific writer on theological, educational, and other subjects, born in London, 1838, was educated at the City of London School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he highly distinguished himself; he was head master of the City of London School from 1865 to 1889, when he retired. His _Shakespearian Grammar_ (1870) is one of his best contributions to English philology. Among his theological and kindred writings are: _Through Nature to Christ_; _Bible Lessons_; _Cambridge Sermons_; _Oxford Sermons_; the elaborate article _Gospels_ in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (9th edition); _From Letter to Spirit_. Other works are: _Philochristus_ and _Onesimus_, both romances on the history of the Early Christian Church; _Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works_; _St. Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles_; _The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman_ (a very depreciatory estimate); _Flatland, a Romance of Many Dimensions_. He also wrote: _Johannine Grammar_ (1906), _The Message of the Son of Man_ (1909), _The Fourfold Gospel_ (1913-7).