Part 18

AL'AMO, a fort in Bexar county, Texas, United States, celebrated for the resistance its occupants (140 Texans) made to a Mexican force of 4000 from 23rd Feb. to 6th March, 1836. At the latter date only six Texans remained alive, and on their surrendering they were slaughtered by the Mexicans.

AL'AMOS, a town of Mexico, State of Sonora, the capital of a mining district. Pop. 12,000.

ALAND (o'land) ISLANDS, a numerous group of islands and islets, about eighty of which are inhabited, formerly in Russia, situated in the Baltic Sea, near the mouth of the Gulf of Finland; area, 468 sq. miles. The principal island, Aland, distant about 30 miles from the Swedish coast, is 18 miles long and about 14 broad. The fortress of Bomarsund, here situated, was destroyed by an Anglo-French force in Aug., 1854. The inhabitants, who are of Swedish extraction, employ themselves mostly in fishing. The islands were ceded by Sweden to Russia in 1809, and proclaimed a province of Finland in 1918. A referendum of the inhabitants, taken in Dec., 1918, decided in favour of union with Sweden, but on 22nd Oct., 1921, an agreement for the neutralization of the islands was signed at Genoa. Pop. 18,000.

ALA'NI, or ALANS, one of the warlike tribes which migrated from Asia westward at the time of the decline of the Roman Empire. They are first met with in the region of the Caucasus, where Pompey fought with them. From this centre they spread over the south of modern Russia to the confines of the Roman Empire. About the middle of the fifth century they joined the Vandals, among whom they became lost to history.

ALARCON' Y MENDO'ZA, Don Juan Ruiz de, one of the most distinguished dramatic poets of Spain, born in Mexico about the end of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. He came to Europe about 1622, and in 1628 he published a volume containing eight comedies, and in 1634 another containing twelve. One of them, called _La Verdad Sospechosa_ (The Truth Suspected), published in 1630 in a collection bearing the name of Lope de Vega, furnished Corneille with the groundwork and greater part of the substance of his _Menteur_. Hence Corneille's declaration in the preface to that play that he had borrowed the subject from Lope de Vega. His _Tejedor de Segovia_ (Weaver of Segovia) and _Las Paredes Oyen_ (Walls have Ears) are still performed on the Spanish stage. He died in 1639.

AL'ARIC I, King of the Visigoths, was born about the middle of the fourth century, probably in 370, and is first mentioned in history in A.D. 394, when Theodosius the Great gave him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries. The dissensions between Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius, inspired Alaric with the intention of attacking the Roman Empire. In 396 he ravaged Greece, from which he was driven by the Roman general Stilicho, but made a masterly retreat to Illyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his successes, appointed him governor. In 400 he invaded Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his services from Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4000 lb. of gold. Honorius having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric made a second invasion of Italy, during which he besieged Rome three times. The first time (408) the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; the second (409) it capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly afterwards restored. His sanction of a treacherous attack on the forces of Alaric brought about the third siege, and the city was taken 24th Aug., 410, and sacked for six days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain the violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of reducing Sicily and Africa, but died at Cosenza in 410. Legend has it that he was buried beneath the river-bed of the Busenzo, the course of which was temporarily turned aside for the purpose.

AL'ARIC II, King of the Visigoths from A.D. 484 to 507. At the beginning of his reign the dominions of the Visigoths were at their greatest extent, embracing three-fourths of the modern Spain and all Western Gaul to the south of the Loire. His unwarlike character induced Clovis, King of the Franks, to invade the kingdom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poitiers (507) Alaric was slain and his army completely defeated. The _Breviarium Alaricianum_, a code of laws derived exclusively from Roman sources, was compiled by a body of Roman jurists at the command of this King Alaric.

ALARM, in military language, a signal, given by beat of drum, bugle-call, or firing of a gun, to warn a camp or garrison of a surprise intended or actually made by the enemy. A place, called the _alarm-post_, is generally appointed at which the troops are to assemble when an alarm is given.--_Alarm_ is also the name given to several contrivances in which electricity is made use of, as a _fire-alarm_, by which intelligence is at once conveyed to the proper quarter when a fire breaks out; a _burglar-alarm_, an arrangement of wires and a battery in a house intended to set a bell or bells ringing should a burglar attempt to gain entrance.

ALARM-CLOCK, one which can be set so as to ring loudly at a certain hour to wake from sleep or excite attention.

ALA-SHEHR ([.a]-l[.a]-sh[=a]r') (ancient PHILADELPHIA), a town in Asia Minor, 100 miles east of Smyrna, famous as the seat of one of the first Christian churches, and still having a vast number of interesting remains of antiquity, consisting of fragments of beautiful columns, sarcophagi, fountains, &c. It is a place of some importance, carrying on a thriving trade, chiefly with Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Pop. 15,000.

ALAS'KA, a territory belonging to the United States, comprising all that portion of the north-west of North America which lies west of the 141st meridian of west longitude, together with an irregular strip of coast-land (and the adjacent islands), extending south to lat. 54deg 40' N., and lying between Canada and the Pacific (the boundary being adjusted in 1903); total area, about 590,884 sq. miles. The chief river is the Yukon, a great stream, now navigated in summer for most of its course. The principal mountains (among which are several volcanoes) are Mounts McKinley (20,470 feet) and Wrangell (17,400 feet). The climate of the interior is very severe in winter, but in summer the heat is intense; on the Pacific coast it is mild but moist. Alaska produces excellent timber. Numbers of fur-bearing animals abound, such as the fur-seal, sea-otter, beaver, fox, mink, marten, &c.; and the fur trade has long been valuable. The coasts and rivers swarm with fish, and salmon and cod are caught and exported. Gold is now mined in several localities, especially Cape Nome, where a town has sprung up. The aboriginal inhabitants consist of Esquimaux and Indians. Alaska, called Russian America until 1867, was sold to the United States for 7,200,000 dollars, the acquisition being ratified by Congress on 20th June, 1867. It has a legislative assembly consisting of eight senators and sixteen representatives, and the legislature meets biennially since 1913. The capital was formerly Sitka, on Baranoff Island, but is now Juneau, on Gastineau Channel. Pop. 64,356, latest estimate being 75,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. W. Greely, _Handbook of Alaska_; J. Muir, _Travels in Alaska_.

ALASKITE, an igneous rock consisting of quartz and felspar. See _Granite_.

ALAS'SIO, a seaport of North Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, a winter resort of people from England. Pop. 5000.

ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, is a surname of Zeus (cf. Lat. Jupiter _Vindex_) describing him as the avenger of evil deeds. The name or epithet is also used to designate any deity or demon who avenges wrongs committed by men. _Alastor_ is the title of a poem by Shelley.

ALATAU ([.a]-l[.a]-tou'), the name of three considerable mountain ranges of Central Asia, on the Russian and Chinese frontiers.

ALATYR ([.a]-l[.a]-tir'), a town in Russia, government Simbirsk, at the confluence of the Alatyr with the Sura, with a considerable trade. Pop. 11,000.

ALAU'DA, a genus of insessorial birds, which includes the larks. See _Lark_.

A'LAVA, a hilly province in the north of Spain, one of the three Basque provinces; area, 1175 sq. miles; covered by branches of the Pyrenees, the mountains being clothed with oak, chestnut, and other timber, and the valleys yielding grain, vegetables, and abundance of fruits. There are iron and copper mines, and inexhaustible salt springs. Capital, Vittoria. Pop. 97,692.

[Illustration: A, Alb with its Apparels _a_, _b_, and Girdle _c_; B, Amice; C, Stole]

ALB (from Lat. _albus_, white), a clerical vestment of the Catholic Church worn by priests while officiating in the more solemn functions of divine service. It is a long robe of white linen reaching to the feet, bound round the waist by a cincture, and fitting more closely to the body than the surplice. It is now little used except during Mass. After the Reformation the _alb_ was not used in the Church of England, but since the ritualistic revival in the nineteenth century it has again been introduced into a number of churches.

ALBA, the name of several towns in ancient Italy, the most celebrated of which was Alba Longa, a city of Latium, according to tradition built by Ascanius, the son of Aeneas, 300 years before the foundation of Rome, at one time the most powerful city of Latium. It ultimately fell under the dominion of Rome, when the town was destroyed, it is said. In later times its site became covered with villas of wealthy Romans.

ALBA (anciently ALBA POMPEIA), a town of Northern Italy, about 30 miles S.E. of Turin, is the see of a bishop, has a cathedral, bishop's palace, church with fresco paintings by Perugino, &c. Pop. 6872.

ALBA, Duke of. See _Alva_.

ALBACETE ([.a]l-b[.a]-th[=a]'t[=a]), a town in Southern Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 106 miles N.N.W. of Cartagena, with a considerable trade, both direct and transit, and manufactures of knives, daggers, &c. Pop. 24,805.--The province has an area of 5737 sq. miles, and a pop. of 273,380.

ALBA LONGA. See _Alba_.

ALBAN, St., the earliest British martyr, flourished in the third century, and was, it is said, converted from Paganism by a confessor whom he had saved from his persecutors. He refused to sacrifice to the gods, and was executed outside the city of Verulamium (St. Albans) in 285 or 305.

ALBANI ([.a]l-b[:a]'n[=e]), Francesco, a famous Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He studied with Guido Reni under the Flemish painter Calvaert and the Caracci. It is said that his second wife, Doralice Fioraventi, bore him twelve children of such beauty that they served him as models for his paintings. Among the best known of his compositions are _The Sleeping Venus_, _Diana in the Bath_, _Danae Reclining_, _Galatea on the Sea_, _Europa on the Bull_.

ALBA'NI, Madame, maiden name Marie Louise Emma Cecile Lajeunesse, famous singer, was born near Montreal in 1852, was trained at home by her father, and studied also in Paris and Milan. She made her first public appearance in Europe at Messina, in Bellini's _La Sonnambula_, and in 1872 sang in the Royal Italian Opera in London. Since then she has attained the position of one of the world's foremost singers, both in opera and oratorio. In 1878 she was married to Mr. Ernest Gye, the operatic manager. She adopted the professional name of Albani from Albany, in the United States, where as a girl she sang in the Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1911 she published her memoirs under the title of _Forty Years of Song_.

ALBA'NIA, an extensive region stretching along the coast of the Adriatic for about 290 miles, and having a breadth varying from about 90 to about 50 miles. The boundary on the east is formed by a range of mountains, and the country is composed of at least nine ridges of hills, of which six are in Lower or Southern Albania (ancient Epirus) and the remainder in Central and Upper or Northern Albania. There are no large rivers, and in summer many of the streams are completely dry. The Drin or Drino is the largest. The most beautiful lake is that of Ochrida, 20 miles long, 8 broad at the widest part. The Lake of Scutari, in Upper Albania, is the largest. Among trees Albania has many species of oak, the poplar, hazel, plane, chestnut, cypress, and laurel. The vine flourishes, together with the orange, almond, fig, mulberry, and citron; maize, wheat, and barley are cultivated. Its fauna comprises bears, wolves, and chamois; sheep, goats, horses, asses, and mules are plentiful. The chief exports are live stock, wool, hides, timber, oil, salt-fish, cheese, and tobacco. The chief ports are Prevesa, Valona, and Durazzo. The population, about 850,000, consists chiefly of Albanians or Arnauts, or, as they call themselves, Skupetars, i.e. inhabitants of the mountains (by the Turks they are called Arnauts, by the Greeks Arbanites, and by the Serbs Arbanasi). They are spread along the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. History and legend afford little or no record of the arrival of the Albanian race in the Balkan Peninsula. It may, however, be safely asserted that the Albanians are the direct descendants of the earliest Aryan immigrants, who were represented in historical times by the kindred Illyrians, Macedonians, and Epirots. The majority live in Albania, the rest in Montenegro, Greece, Southern Italy, Sicily, Bessarabia, and Asia Minor. As regards religion they are either Christians or Mohammedans. They are divided into several tribes, among whom the Suliotes are partly of Greek origin. The Albanian language is a branch of the Indo-European languages, and related to the long-ago extinct language of the Messapians. The language consists of numerous dialects, which may be divided into those of the Tosks in the south and the Gheggas in the north. Though their country became a province of the Turkish dominions in 1431, they maintained for centuries a certain degree of independence, which the Porte never found it possible to overcome. On 28th Nov., 1912, the complete independence of Albania was proclaimed at Valona, a provisional government was founded under Ismail Kemal Bey, and Albanian autonomy was agreed to at the Ambassadorial Conference in London on 20th Dec. On 21st Feb., 1914, the crown was offered to Prince William of Wied, who arrived at Durazzo on 7th March. The prince was supported and advised by an International Commission of Control, but he left the country at the outbreak of hostilities in 1914. Attempts made by Essad Pasha to establish a military government failed, and the country was overrun by the Austrians, who captured Durazzo on 28th Feb., 1916. On 3rd June, 1917, the general in charge of the Italian forces proclaimed Albania an independent country, and a provisional government was set up at Durazzo. Albanian independence was recognized by the Powers and Albania admitted to the League of Nations in Dec., 1920.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. F. Tozer, _Researches in the Highlands of Turkey_; W. Peacock, _Albania, The Foundling State_.

ALBA'NO, a city and lake in Italy, the former about 15 miles south-east of Rome, and on the west border of the lake, amid beautiful scenery. An ancient tomb in the Etruscan style was for a long time looked upon as the sepulchre of the Horatii and Curiatii. Here are also the ruins of the villas of Pompey and Domitian. Pop. 8000.--The lake, situated immediately beneath the Alban Hill, is of an oval form, 6 miles in circumference, surrounded by steep banks of volcanic tufa 300 or 400 feet high, and discharges its superfluous waters by an artificial tunnel at least 2000 years old.

ALBANS, St. See _St. Albans_.

AL'BANY, the original Celtic name probably at first applied to the whole of Britain, but afterwards restricted to the Highlands of Scotland. It gave the title of duke formerly to a prince of the blood-royal of Scotland. The first duke was Robert Stuart (1345-1420), son of Robert II by his mistress Elizabeth Mure, and brother of Robert III. He was virtual ruler of the kingdom during the latter years of his brother's reign, and acted as regent for his nephew James I (kept a prisoner in England) till his own death. Another nephew, David, Duke of Rothesay, is said to have been starved to death in Falkland Castle at his instigation. His son Murdoch, second duke, succeeded him as regent, and was put to death by James for maladministration. The third duke was Alexander, second son of James II and brother of James III. A large part of his life was passed in France. His son John was the fourth who bore the title. He was regent of Scotland during the minority of James V (1515-23).

AL'BANY, a city of the United States, capital of the State of New York on the west bank of the Hudson, 132 miles north of New York city, from and to which steamboats run daily. The Erie Canal and the numerous railway lines centring here from all directions greatly contribute to the growth and prosperity of the city, which carries on an extensive trade. It is a great mart for timber, and has foundries, breweries, tanneries, &c. Albany was settled by the Dutch between 1610 and 1614, and the older houses are in the Dutch style, with the gable-ends to the streets. There is a university, an observatory, and a State library with 90,000 volumes. The principal public buildings are the capitol or State-house, which cost about L5,000,000, and the State-hall for the public offices, a State arsenal, and numerous churches. Pop. (1920), 113,344.

AL'BANY, Louisa Maria Caroline, Countess of, a princess of the Stolberg-Gedern family, was born in 1753, and married, in 1772, the pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, after which event she bore the above title. To escape from the ill-treatment of her husband she retired, in 1780, to the house of her brother-in-law at Rome, where she met the poet Alfieri, whose mistress she became. After the death of Alfieri in 1793 she opened her famous political and literary salon frequented by the Duchess of Devonshire, the Duchess of Hamilton, Cardinal Consalvi, Samuel Rogers, Thomas Moore, Lamartine, and Chateaubriand. She died at Florence in 1824, where she was buried at the Church of Sta Croce, by the side of Alfieri, whom she is supposed to have married secretly.

ALBA'TA, a name sometimes given to German silver.

[Illustration: Wandering Albatross (_Diom[=e]dea ex[)u]lans_)]

AL'BATROSS, a large marine swimming bird of several species, of which the wandering albatross (_Diomed[=e]a ex[)u]lans_) is the best known. The bill is straight and strong, the upper mandible hooked at the point and the lower one truncated; there are three webbed toes on each foot. The upper part of the body is of a greyish brown, and the belly white. It is the largest sea-bird known, some measuring 17-1/2 feet from tip to tip of their expanded wings. They abound at the Cape of Good Hope and in other parts of the southern seas, and in Behring's Straits, and have been known to accompany ships for whole days without ever resting on the waves. From this habit the bird is regarded with feelings of attachment and superstitious awe by sailors, it being reckoned unlucky to kill one. Coleridge has availed himself of this feeling in his _Ancient Mariner_. The albatross is met with at great distances from the land, settling down on the waves at night to sleep. It is exceedingly voracious, whenever food is abundant, gorging to such a degree as to be unable to fly or swim. It feeds on fish, carrion, fish-spawn, oceanic mollusca, and other small marine animals. Its cry is harsh and disagreeable. Its nest is a heap of earth; its eggs are larger than those of a goose.

ALBATROSS, a name applied to a certain type of German aeroplanes, much used for scouting purposes during the European War.

ALBAY ([.a]l-b[=i]'), a province, town, bay, and volcano in the south-east part of the Island of Luzon, one of the Philippines. The province is mountainous but fertile; the town regularly built, with a pop. of 34,000; the bay capacious, secure, and almost landlocked; and the volcano, which is always in activity, forms a conspicuous landmark.

ALBEMARLE, Duke of. See _Monk, George_.

AL'BENDORF, a village in Prussia, province of Silesia, 50 miles S.W. of Breslau, remarkable for the pilgrimages made to its church, chapels, statues, &c. Pop. 1800.

ALBERONI, Cardinal Giulio (j[=u]'li-o [.a]l-b[=a]-r[=o]'n[=e]), born in 1664 in North Italy, and educated for the Church. In his youth he laboured as a gardener, but thanks to the protection of the Duc de Vendome, whose secretary he became, and afterwards of the Duc de Parma, he rose to high position. The latter sent him as his minister to Madrid, where he gained the affection of Philip V. He rose by cunning and intrigue to the position of Prime Minister, became a cardinal, was all-powerful in Spain after the year 1715, and endeavoured to restore it to its ancient splendour. In pursuance of this object he invaded Sardinia and Sicily, and indeed entertained the idea of stirring up a general war in Europe. The alliance of France and England, however, rendered his schemes abortive, and led to his dismissal and exile in 1720. He wandered about a long time under false names, but on the accession of Pope Innocent XIII he was restored to all the rights and honours of a cardinal. He died in 1752, and was buried at Piacenza.