Part 9

A'DRIAN, a town of the United States, in Michigan, 70 miles W.S.W. of Detroit. Its extensive water-power is employed in works of various kinds. Pop. 9654.

A'DRIAN, Publius Aelius Hadrianus. See _Hadrian_.

ADRIANO'PLE (Turk. _Edreneh_), an important city in the Balkans, about 135 miles W.N.W. from Constantinople, on the Maritza (ancient _Hebrus_), at its junction with the Tundja and the Arda. It has a great mosque, among the most magnificent in the world; a palace, now in a state of decay; a grand aqueduct, and a splendid bazaar; manufactures of silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs, otto of roses, leather, &c., and an important trade. Adrianople received its present name from the Roman emperor Adrian (Hadrian). In 1361 it was taken by Amurath I, and was the residence of the Turkish sovereigns till the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. In 1829 it was taken by the Russians, and here was then concluded the peace of Adrianople, by which Russia received important accessions of territory in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea. The Russians occupied it also in 1878. Adrianople was bombarded by the Balkan allied forces in Feb., 1913, and fell 28th March; it was recaptured by the Turks, under Enver Bey, 20th July. Pop. 83,000.

ADRIAN'S (or HADRIAN'S) WALL. See _Roman Walls_.

ADRIAT'IC SEA, or GULF OF VENICE, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching in a north-westerly direction from the Straits of Otranto, between Italy and the Balkan Peninsula (Yugo-Slavia). Length, about 480 miles; average breadth, about 100; area, about 60,000 sq. miles. The rivers which it receives, particularly the Po, its principal feeder, have produced, and are still producing, great geological changes in its basin by their alluvial deposits. Hence Adria, between the Po and the Adige, which gives the sea its name, though once a flourishing seaport, is now 17 miles inland. An oceanographic investigation of the Adriatic Sea took place in Feb. and March, 1911. The principal trading ports on the Italian side are Brindisi, Bari, Ancona, Sinigaglia, and Venice; on the east side Ragusa, Fiume, Pirano, Pola, and Trieste (Italian).

ADSCRIPTI GLEBAE (Lat., persons attached to the soil), a term applied to a class of Roman slaves attached in perpetuity to and transferred with the land they cultivated. Colliers and salt workers in Scotland were in a similar position till 1775.

ADULA'RIA, a very pure, limpid, translucent variety of the common felspar, called by lapidaries _moonstone_, on account of the play of light exhibited by the arrangement of its crystalline structure. It is found on the Alps, but the best specimens are brought from Ceylon. It is so called from _Adula_, one of the peaks of St. Gothard, where fine specimens are got.

ADUL'LAM, CAVE OF, a cave to which David fled when persecuted by Saul, and whither he was followed by "every one who was in distress, in debt, or discontented" (1 _Sam._ xxii, 1, 2).--The name _Adullamites_ was given to an English political party, consisting of R. Lowe, Lord Elcho, and other Liberals, who opposed the majority of their party on the Franchise Bill of 1866. The term originated from a speech of John Bright on 13th March, 1866.

ADULTERA'TION, a term applied to the fraudulent mixture of articles of commerce, foods, drugs, beverages, seeds, &c., with inferior ingredients, and also to any accidental impurity found in a substance. The chief objects of adulteration are to render a substance more pleasing in appearance, to increase the weight, to make an inferior article appear as good as the article of superior quality. Any substance added to an article to increase its bulk, weight, colour, &c., is spoken of as an adulterant. Milk is often adulterated with water and with colouring-matter. Butter may be adulterated by mixing with it other fats or by the addition of colouring-matter. Nearly every article of food can be adulterated in some way to make it appear of finer quality. _Preservatives_ added to foods and drugs generally may be classed as adulterants. Thus cream is preserved by adding small quantities of boric acid. Beer sometimes contains salicylic acid added as a preservative. Chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol to prevent decomposition. Methylated spirits is alcohol adulterated in several ways to render it unfit for human consumption. Tobacco contains benzoic acid as preservative, and sometimes saltpetre to aid burning. Many of these adulterants are harmful, so that such added to foods and beverages must be present only in very small quantities. Food and Drug Acts lay down the limits of the quantities of foreign matter permitted either as preservative or impurity. Practically every article of commerce is adulterated in some way, and pure substances are seldom used. Cf. Walker, _The Food Inspector's Encyclopaedia_.

ADUL'TERY, the voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with any other than the offender's husband or wife; when committed between two married persons, the offence is called double, and when between a married and single person, single adultery. The Mosaic, Greek, and early Roman law only recognized the offence when a married woman was the offender. By the Jewish law it was punished with death. In Greece the laws against it were severe. By the laws of Draco and Solon adulterers, when caught in the act, were at the mercy of the injured party. In early Rome the punishment was left to the discretion of the husband and parents of the adulteress. The punishment assigned by the Lex Julia, under Augustus, was banishment or a heavy fine. Under Constantius and Constans, adulterers were burned or sewed in sacks and thrown into the sea; under Justinian the wife was to be scourged, lose her dower, and be shut up in a monastery; at the expiration of two years the husband might take her again; if he refused she was shaven and made a nun for life. By the ancient laws of France this crime was punishable with death. In Spain personal mutilation was frequently the punishment adopted. In several European countries adultery is regarded as a criminal offence, but in none does the punishment exceed imprisonment for a short period, accompanied by a fine. In England formerly it was punishable with fine and imprisonment, and in Scotland it was frequently made a capital offence. In Great Britain at the present day, however, it is punishable only by ecclesiastical censure. The aggrieved husband, however, can obtain damages against his wife's seducer. In England a man can obtain a dissolution of his marriage on the ground of his wife's adultery, and a wife can obtain a judicial separation on the ground of her husband's adultery, or a dissolution of the marriage if the offence is coupled with cruelty, desertion, or bigamy. In Scotland it is not necessary to prove cruelty. In the United States the punishment of adultery has varied materially at different times. It is, however, very seldom punished criminally in the States. A person divorced for adultery is by the laws of France and Scotland prohibited from intermarrying with the co-respondent.

AD VALO'REM (Lat., according to the value), a term applied to customs or duties levied according to the worth of the goods, as sworn to by the owner, and not according to number, weight, measure, &c.

ADVANCE-NOTE, a draft on the owner of a vessel, generally for one month's wages, given by the master to the sailors on their signing the articles of agreement. The granting of such notes to British sailors was made illegal by an Act passed in 1880.

AD'VENT (Lat. _adventus_, an arrival, 'the coming of our Saviour'), the name applied to the holy season which occupies the four or, according to the Greek Church, six weeks preceding Christmas, and which forms the first portion of the ecclesiastical year, as observed by the Anglican, the Roman Catholic, and the Greek Church.

AD'VENTISTS, a group of six American religious sects who believe in the speedy coming of Christ, and generally practise adult immersion. The first sect of Adventists was founded by William Miller in 1831.--There is also a sect called _Seventh-day Adventists_, who hold that the coming of Christ is at hand, and maintain that the Sabbath is still the seventh day of the week.

AD'VERB, one of the parts of speech used to limit or qualify the signification of an adjective, verb, or other adverb; as, _very cold_, _naturally brave_, _much more clearly_, _readily agreed_. Adverbs may be classified as follows: (1) Adverbs of time, as, _now_, _then_, _never_, &c.; (2) of place, as, _here_, _there_, _where_, &c.; (3) of degree, as, _very_, _much_, _nearly_, _almost_, &c.; (4) of affirmation, negation, or doubt, as, _yes_, _no_, _certainly_, _perhaps_, &c.; (5) of manner, as, _well_, _badly_, _clearly_, &c.

ADVERTIS'ING. Advertising on a small scale is a practice as old as commerce; but modern advertising on a large scale cannot be dated further back than 1785, when the _Times_ was founded. The last thirty years have witnessed a great increase in the importance of advertisements as part of the policy of a progressive business. Much more intelligence and vastly more money is now spent on advertising than ever was before. America led the way, but the British are not now far behind in the number and ingenuity of their advertisements.

There are roughly speaking five distinct types of advertisement:--

(1) Press advertising, under which heading is included daily and weekly newspapers, monthly magazines and year books, directories, &c.

(2) Mail-order advertising, which comprises form-letters, catalogues.

(3) Poster and showcard advertising. This includes large and small posters, on hoardings, in railway stations or tubes, &c.

(4) Illuminated signs either outside buildings on a large scale or in frames of various sizes inside business premises, theatres, &c.

(5) Cinema advertising--a recent development which has proved extremely effective.

Advertising to be successful must be carefully organized. A firm wishing to advertise must first of all settle how much money it is willing to spend on this object. A common practice is to devote a fixed proportion of the profits--at least five per cent--to advertising. The firm must then carefully consider the period of time over which the expenditure agreed upon is to be spread. Occasional or spasmodic advertising does not produce satisfactory results; advertising must be constant and must move with the times in order to be effective. A firm not uncommonly reviews the results of its advertising every six months, when it also arranges its plans for future advertisements. Mistakes in policy can thus be corrected and successful schemes can be readopted or improved upon. Advertising on any large scale must be handled by experts. Many thousands of pounds are wasted yearly by firms which hand over this work to a director who has no knowledge of how to advertise. The proper way for a firm to act, if it wishes to enter upon a campaign of publicity, is to engage an efficient advertising staff or to employ a reliable advertising agent. These agents in many cases obtain their profits from the commission given to them by newspapers--this often being about ten per cent of the cost of the space booked. In return for this they give their advice and copy--everything, indeed, except blocks and sketches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry Sampson, _A History of Advertising_; _Edinburgh Review_, Feb., 1843, _On the Advertising System_. A good account of the more recent developments of advertising is to be found in H. G. Wells's novel _Tono-Bungay_; T. Russell, _Commercial Advertising_.

AD VITAM AUT CULPAM (Lat., for life or till a fault), a formula often used in regard to appointments to posts or offices, intimating that they are held for life or till the person forfeits his position by some fault or misdeed.

AD'VOCATE (Lat., _advocatus_--_ad_, to, _voco_, to call), a lawyer authorized to plead the cause of his clients before a court of law. It is only in Scotland that this word seems to denote a distinct class belonging to the legal profession, the advocates of Scotland being the pleaders before the supreme courts, and corresponding to the _barristers_ of England and Ireland. These advocates all belong to the _Faculty of Advocates_, Edinburgh, to whom the oral pleadings in the Court of Session are for the most part limited, while they are also competent to plead in all the inferior Scottish courts and in the House of Lords in cases of appeal from the Court of Session. The supreme judges in Scotland, as well as the sheriffs of the various counties, are always selected from among them. Candidates for admission must undergo two separate examinations, one in general scholarship and the other in law.--The _Lord-Advocate_, called also the _King's_ or _Queen's Advocate_, is the principal law officer of the crown in Scotland. He is the public prosecutor of crimes in the Supreme Court, and senior counsel for the crown in civil causes. Being appointed by the crown, he goes out of office with the administration to which he belongs. As public prosecutor he is assisted by the solicitor-general and by four junior counsel called advocates-depute. The lord-advocate and the solicitor-general, in addition to their official duties, accept of ordinary bar practice.

ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, the chief library in Scotland, located in Edinburgh, and founded about 1682 by the Faculty of Advocates. It was increased by donations and by sums granted by the Faculty from time to time. As the donations were not confined to advocates the library was considered a kind of public library, and it has continued to retain this character. In 1709 it obtained, along with eight other libraries, the right to demand a copy of every new book published in Britain, which right it still possesses. The number of volumes is over 600,000 and MSS. over 3200.

ADVOCA'TUS DIAB'OLI (Devil's advocate), in the Roman Catholic Church, a functionary who, when a deceased person is proposed for canonization, brings forward and insists upon all the weak points of the character and life of the deceased, endeavouring to show that he is not worthy of sainthood. The first formal mention of such an officer occurs under Pope Leo X (1513-21). The opposite side is taken by the _Advocatus Dei_ (God's advocate).

ADVOW'SON, in English law, a right of presentation to a vacant benefice, or, in other words, a right of nominating a person to officiate in a vacant church. Those who have this right are styled _patrons_. Advowsons are of three kinds--_presentative_, _collative_, and _donative_: _presentative_, when the patron presents his clerk to the bishop of the diocese to be instituted; _collative_, when the bishop is the patron, and institutes or _collates_ his clerk by a single act; _donative_, when a church is founded by the king, or any person licensed by him, without being subject to the ordinary, so that the patron confers the benefice on his clerk without presentation, institution, or induction. An advowson cannot be held by either a Roman Catholic or an alien.

AD'YTUM, a secret place of retirement in the ancient temples, esteemed the most sacred spot; the innermost sanctuary or shrine. From this place the oracles were given, and none but the priests were permitted to enter it. The Holy of Holies or Sanctum Sanctorum of the Temple at Jerusalem was of a similar character.

ADZE, a cutting instrument used for chipping the surface of timber, somewhat of a mattock shape, and having a blade of steel forming a portion of a cylindrical surface, with a cutting edge at right angles to the length of the handle.

AEDILES ([=e]'d[=i]lz), Roman magistrates who had the supervision of the national games and spectacles; of the public edifices, such as temples (the name comes from _aedes_, a temple); of private buildings, of the markets, cleansing and draining the city, &c.

AE'DUI, one of the most powerful nations of Gaul, between the Liger (Loire) and the Arar (Saone). On the arrival of Julius Caesar in Gaul (58 B.C.) they were subject to Ariovistus, but their independence was restored by Caesar. Their chief town was Bibracte (Mont Beuvray, near Autun).

AEGADE'AN ISLANDS, a group of small islands lying off the western extremity of Sicily, and consisting of Maritimo, Favignana, Levanso, and Le Formiche.

[Illustration: Grecian Ibex (_Capra aegagrus_)]

AEGAG'RUS, a wild species of ibex (_Capra aegagrus_), found in herds on the Caucasus, and many Asiatic mountains, believed to be the original source of at least one variety of the domestic goat.

AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, a term applied to the pre-Hellenic civilization of south-eastern Europe, including Crete, Greece and the Cyclades, and the Danubian or Mid-European area. See _Crete_ and _Danubian Civilization_.

AEGEAN SEA ([=e]-j[=e]'an), that part of the Mediterranean which washes the eastern shores of Greece, and the western coast of Asia Minor. See _Archipelago_.

AE'GILOPS, a genus of grasses, very closely allied to wheat, and somewhat remarkable from the alleged fact that by cultivation one of the species becomes a kind of wheat.

AEGINA ([=e]-j[=i]'na), a Greek island in the Gulf of Aegina, south of Athens, triangular in form; area about 32 sq. miles; pop. 8500. It forms part of the nomarchy of Attica and Boeotia. Except in the west, where the surface is more level, the island is mountainous and unproductive. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in trade, seafaring, and agriculture, the chief crops being almonds, olives, and grain. The greater number of them reside in the seaport town of Aegina. Aegina was anciently colonized by Dorians from the opposite coast of Peloponnesus. In the latter half of the sixth century B.C. it had a flourishing commerce, a large navy, and was the seat of a distinct school of art. At the battle of Salamis (480 B.C.) the Aeginetans behaved with great valour. In 456 the island fell under the power of the Athenians, and in 431 the Aeginetans were expelled to make room for Athenian settlers, but were afterwards restored. On a hill are the remains of a splendid temple of Athena (Minerva), many of the columns of which are still standing. Here was found in 1811 a considerable amount of sculpture from the pediments (the _Aeginetan marbles_), which is now at the Glyptothek at Munich, and is prized as throwing light on the early history of Greek art. Though in these figures there is a wonderfully exact imitation of nature, yet there is a certain stiffness about them and an unnatural sameness of expression in all. They should probably be assigned to the period 500-480 B.C.

AEGIS ([=e]'jis), the shield of Zeus, according to Homer, but according to later writers and artists a metal cuirass or breastplate, in which was set the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and with which Athena (Minerva) is often represented as being protected. In a figurative sense the word is used to denote some shielding or protecting power.

AEGLE ([=e]'gl[=e]), a genus of plants. See _Bel._

AEGOSPOT'AMI ('goat-rivers'), a place on the Hellespont, of some note in Greek history, the Athenian fleet being here completely defeated in 405 B.C. by the Spartan Lysander, thus ending the Peloponnesian war.

AELFRIC (al'frik), Abbot, called _Grammaticus_ (the grammarian), was a celebrated English author of the eleventh century. He became a monk of Abingdon, was afterwards connected with Winchester, and died Abbot of Eynsham. His principal works are two books of homilies, a _Treatise on the Old and New Testaments_, a translation and abridgment of the first seven books of the Bible, a _Latin Grammar and Glossary_, &c. He has been frequently confounded both with Aelfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Aelfric, Archbishop of York, surnamed Putta, who lived about the same time. There was also an Aelfric of Malmesbury.

AELIA'NUS, Claudius, often called simply AELIAN, a Roman author who lived about A.D. 221, and wrote in Greek a collection of stories and anecdotes and a natural history of animals.

AELIA'NUS TACTICUS, so called to distinguish him from Claudius Aelianus, lived at Rome, and wrote a work _On the Military Tactics of the Greeks_, which he dedicated to the Emperor Hadrian, who was emperor from A.D. 117 to 138. This book was closely studied by soldiers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

AELST ([:a]lst), Belgian town, same as ALOST.

AENE'AS, the hero of Virgil's _Aen[=e]id_, a Trojan, who, according to Homer, was, next to Hector, the bravest of the warriors of Troy. When that town was taken and set on fire, Aeneas, according to the narrative of Virgil, with his father, son, and wife Creusa, fled, but the latter was lost in the confusion of the flight. Having collected a fleet he sailed for Italy, but after numerous adventures he was driven by a tempest to the coast of Africa, where Queen Dido of Carthage received him kindly, and would have married him. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Aeneas, and commanded him to sail to Italy. Whilst the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile, Aeneas set sail with his companions, and after further adventures by land and sea reached the country of King Latinus, in Italy. The king's daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to wed a stranger, this stranger being Aeneas, but was promised by her mother to Turnus, King of the R[)u]t[)u]li. This occasioned a war, which was ended by Aeneas slaying Turnus and marrying Lavinia. His son by Lavinia, Aeneas Sylvius, was the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa, and of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome.

AEOLIAN HARP, or AEOLUS' HARP, a musical instrument, generally consisting of a box of thin fibrous wood (often of deal), to which are attached from eight to fifteen fine catgut strings or wires, stretched on low bridges at either end, and tuned in unison. Its length is made to correspond with the size of the window or other aperture in which it is intended to be placed. When the wind blows athwart the strings it produces very beautiful sounds, sweetly mingling all the harmonic tones, and swelling or diminishing according to the strength or weakness of the blast.

AEOLIANS (Gr. _Aioleis_), one of the four races into which the ancient Greeks were divided, originally inhabiting the district of AE[)o]lis, in Thessaly, from which they spread over other parts of Greece. In early times they were the most numerous and powerful of the Hellenic races, chiefly inhabiting Northern Greece and the western side of Peloponnesus, though latterly a portion of them went to Lesbos and Tenedos and the north-west shores of Asia Minor, where they possessed a number of cities. Their language, the Aeolian dialect, was one of the three principal dialects of the Greek. It was cultivated for literary purposes chiefly at Lesbos, and was the dialect in which Alcaeus and Sappho wrote.

AEOL'IPILE (Lat. _AE[)o]li pila_, the ball of AE[)o]lus), a spherical vessel of metal, with a pipe of small aperture, through which the vapour of heated water in the ball passes out with considerable noise; or having two nozzles so placed that the steam rushing out causes it to revolve on the principle of the Barker's mill. It was known to the ancient Greeks.

AE'OLUS, in Greek mythology, the god of the winds, which he kept confined in a cave in the Aeolian Islands, releasing them when he wished or was commanded by the superior gods.

AE'ON, a Greek word signifying life, an age, and sometimes eternity, but used by the Gnostics to express spirits or powers that had emanated from the Supreme Mind before the beginning of time. They held both Christ and the Holy Spirit to be aeons; but as they denied the divine origin of the books of Moses, they said that the spirit which had inspired him and the prophets was not that exalted aeon whom God sent forth after the ascension of Christ, but an aeon very much inferior, and removed at a great distance from the Supreme Being.