Part 7

ADAM AND EVE, the names given in Scripture to our first parents, an account of whom and their immediate descendants is given in the early chapters of _Genesis_. Cain, Abel, and Seth are all their sons that are mentioned by name; but we are told that they had other sons as well as daughters. There are numerous Rabbinical additions to the Scripture narrative of an extravagant character, such as the myth of Adam having a wife before Eve, named _Lilith_, who became the mother of giants and evil spirits. Other legends or inventions are contained in the Koran.

ADAM DE LA HALE, an early French writer and musician, born 1235, died 1287. His _Jeu de Robin et de Marion_ (first produced at Naples), may be regarded as the first comic opera ever written. Cf. H. Guy, _Bibliographie Critique du Trouvere_, Paris, 1900.

AD'AMANT, an old name for the diamond; also used in a vague way to imply a substance of impenetrable hardness.

ADAMAN'TINE SPAR, a name of the mineral corundum or of a brownish variety of it.

ADAMA'WA (also called FUMBINA), a region of West Africa, between lat. 6deg and 10deg N., and lon. 11deg and 17deg E. Much of the surface is hilly or mountainous, Mount Atlantika being 9000 or 10,000 feet. The principal river is the Benue. A great part of the country is covered with thick forests. The oil palm and bananas are staple products. Chief town Yola (Nigeria).

ADAMELLO. See _European War_.

AD'AMITES, a religious sect dating from the second century, probably of Gnostic origin. It was so called because both men and women were said to appear naked in their assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the state of innocence or to prove the control which they possessed over their passions. Practices similar to those of the Adamites arose several times in later ages. See _Beghards_.

ADAM'NAN, St., born in Ireland about 624, was elected abbot of Iona in 679, and died there about 703 or 704. He is best known from his _Life of St. Columba_, valuable as throwing light on the early ecclesiastical history of Scotland. (There are editions by Reeves, 1857; reissued with English translation 1874; and by Fowler, 1895.) His feast is celebrated on 23rd Sept.

ADAMS, Charles Francis, American litterateur and statesman, was a son of John Quincy Adams, and was born in 1807. His boyhood was spent in Europe,

## partly in England; but he finished his education at Harvard, and afterwards

studied law. After serving some years in the Massachusetts legislature he was sent to Congress in 1859. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England as American minister, and here he remained for seven years, performing the arduous duties of his office with the utmost tact and ability. Between 1874 and 1877 he edited a complete edition of his grandfather's works in 12 vols. He was one of the arbitrators on the _Alabama_ claims. Died in 1886.

ADAMS, John, second president of the United States, was born at Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, 19th Oct., 1735. He was educated at Harvard University, and adopted the law as a profession. His attention was directed to politics by the question as to the right of the English Parliament to tax the colonies, and in 1765 he published some essays strongly opposed to the claims of the mother country. As a member of the new American congress in 1774, 1775, and 1776 he was strenuous in his opposition to the home Government, and in organizing the various departments of the colonial Government. On 13th May, 1776, he seconded the motion for a declaration of independence proposed by Lee of Virginia, and was appointed a member of committee to draw it up. The declaration was actually drawn up by Jefferson, but it was Adams who fought it through Congress. In 1778 he went to France on a special mission, but soon came back and again returned, and for nine years resided abroad as representative of his country in France, Holland, and England. After taking part in the peace negotiations he was appointed, in 1785, the first ambassador of the United States to the Court of St. James. He was recalled in 1788, and the following year elected vice-president of the republic under Washington. In 1792 he was re-elected vice-president, and at the following election in 1797 he became president in succession to Washington. The commonwealth was then divided into two

## parties, the Federalists, who favoured aristocratic and were suspected of

monarchic views, and the Republicans. Adams adhered to the former party, with which his views of government had always been in accordance, but the real leader of the party was Hamilton, with whom Adams did not agree, and who tried to prevent his election. His term of office proved a stormy one, which broke up and dissolved the Federalist party. His re-election in 1801 was again opposed by the efforts of Hamilton, which ended in effecting the return of the Republican candidate Jefferson. Thus it happened that when Adams retired from office his influence and popularity with both parties were at an end, and he sunk at once into the obscurity of private life. He had the consolation, however, of living to see his son president. He died 4th July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of independence, and on the same day as Jefferson. His works have been ably edited by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.

ADAMS, John Couch, English astronomer, born 1819, died 1892, studied at Cambridge, and was senior wrangler in 1843. His investigations into the irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus led him to the conclusion that they must be caused by another more distant planet, and the results of his labours were communicated in September and October, 1845, to Professor Challis and Airy the Astronomer Royal. The French astronomer Leverrier had by this time been engaged in the same line of research, and had come to substantially the same results, which, being published in 1846, led to the actual discovery of the planet Neptune by Galle of Berlin. In 1858 Adams was professor of mathematics at Aberdeen University, and in 1859 was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge.

ADAMS, John Quincy, sixth president of the United States, son of John Adams, second president, was born 11th July, 1767. Accompanying his father to Europe he received part of his education there, but graduated at Harvard in 1788. Having adopted the legal profession, in 1791 he was admitted to the bar. He now began to take an active interest in politics, and some letters that he wrote having attracted general attention, in 1794 Washington appointed him minister to the Hague. He afterwards was sent to Berlin, and also on a mission to Sweden. In 1798 he received a commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden. On the accession of Jefferson to the presidency in 1801 he was recalled. The Federalist party (that of his father), which was now declining, had sufficient influence in Massachusetts to elect him to the senate in 1803. On an important question of foreign policy, that of embargo, he abandoned his party, and having lost his re-election on this account, he retired to the professorship of rhetoric at Cambridge, which he held from 1806 to 1809. In 1809 he went as ambassador to Russia. He assisted in negotiating the peace of 1814 with England, and was afterwards appointed resident minister at London. Under Monroe as president he was secretary of state, and at the expiration of Monroe's double term of office he succeeded him in the presidency (1825). He was not very successful as president, and at the end of his term (1829) he was not re-elected. In 1831 he was returned to Congress by Massachusetts, and continued to represent this State till his death, his efforts being now chiefly on behalf of the Abolitionist party. He died 21st Feb., 1848.

ADAMS, Samuel, an American statesman, second cousin of President John Adams, was born in Boston, 27th Sept., 1722, and was educated at Harvard College. He early devoted himself to politics, and in connection with the dispute between America and the mother country he showed himself one of the most unwearied, efficient, and disinterested assertors of American freedom and independence. He was one of the signers of the declaration of 1776, which he laboured most indefatigably to bring forward. He sat in congress eight years; from 1789-94 was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts; from 1794-7 governor, when he retired from public life. He died 2nd Oct., 1803.

ADAM'S APPLE, the popular name of the prominence seen in the front of the throat in man, and which is formed by the portion of the larynx known as the _thyroid cartilage_. It is much smaller and less visible in females than in males, and is so named from the supposition that it was caused by a piece of the forbidden fruit having stuck in Adam's throat. In botany it is the name given to the plantain tree and the _Citrus pomum_. It is the Heb. _Ethrog_, which, according to Hebrew legend, was the fruit Adam and Eve ate in the garden of Eden.

ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of reefs, sandbanks, and islands stretching between India and Ceylon; so called because the Mohammedans believe that when Adam was driven from paradise he had to pass by this way to Ceylon (where is also Adam's Peak). The Brahmans call it the bridge of Rama, the hero of the Indian Epic, the _Ramayana_.

ADAM'S NEEDLE, a popular name of the Yucca plant.

ADAM'S PEAK, one of the highest mountains in Ceylon, 45 miles east-south-east of Colombo, conical, isolated, and 7420 feet high. On the top, a rocky area of 64 feet by 45, is a hollow in the rock 5 feet long bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot, which the Brahmans believe to be the footprint of Siva; the Buddhists, who call it Sri-pada (sacred footmark), that of Buddha; the Mahommedans that of Adam. The last-named believe that Adam stood here on one foot for a thousand years, lamenting his exclusion from Eden. Devotees of all creeds meet here and present their offerings (chiefly rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint. The ascent is very steep, and towards the summit is assisted by steps cut and iron chains riveted in the rock.

ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottish divine and Latin poet, born 15th March, 1536, died 19th Feb., 1592. He was educated at St. Andrews, lived some years in France, was minister of Paisley, and afterwards Archbishop of St. Andrews, in which position he made himself very obnoxious to the Presbyterian party. Deprived of the revenues of the see, he died in indigence. He turned portions of the Bible into Latin verse.

AD'ANA, town and capital of Adana vilayet, Asia Minor, on the Seihun-Irmak; served by the Bagdad Railway. The district is claimed by Armenia. Cotton, rice, wine, and fruit are exported. Pop. (town), 70,000; (vilayet), 1,000,000.

ADANSON ([.a]-d[.a]n-s[=o][n.]), Michel, French naturalist and traveller (of Scottish extraction), born 1727; died 1806. He lived five years in Senegal, and wrote a natural history of this region as well as works on botany. The baobab genus is named _Adansonia_ after him. Adanson's statue was erected in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in 1856.

ADANSO'NIA. See preceding article and _Baobab_.

ADAPTATION (from the Lat. _ad_, to, and _apt[=a]re_, to fit), the process of modification or alteration of a thing so as to change its original purpose and adapt it to other uses. Adaptation in biology is the power and process by which an organism or species of animals or plants changes and becomes modified, so as to suit the conditions of its life. In other words it is the adjustment, or favourable reaction, of the living world to its environment, the advantageous variation of animals and plants under changed conditions. The term now includes both that which is hereditary and that which is acquired. The powers of lower forms of life to adapt themselves to changes of environment are limited, and frequently, when the conditions vary suddenly, they are either arrested in their development or die altogether.--In literature it is the process by which an author modifies the work of another not in its essence but in its form and details, either in the original or in a foreign language.

A'DAR, the twelfth month of the Hebrew sacred and sixth of the civil year, answering to part of February and part of March.

ADDA (ancient ADDUA), a river of North Italy, which, descending from the Rhaetian Alps, falls into Lake Como, and leaving this joins the Po, after a course of about 170 miles. On the banks of the Adda Napoleon won the battle of Lodi in 1796.

ADDA, a species of lizard, more commonly called Skink.

AD'DAX, a species of antelope (_Hippotr[)a]gus nasomacul[=a]tus_) of the size of a large ass, with much of its make. The horns of the male are about 4 feet long, beautifully twisted into a wide-sweeping spiral of two turns and a half, with the points directed outwards. It has tufts of hair on the forehead and throat, and large broad hoofs. It inhabits the sandy regions of Nubia and Kordofan, and is also found in Caffraria.

[Illustration: Adder (_Vipera communis_)]

ADDER, a name often applied to the common viper as well as to other kinds of venomous serpents. See _Viper_.

ADDER-PIKE (_Trach[=i]nus vip[)e]ra_), a small species of the weever fish, called also the Lesser Weever or Sting-fish. See _Weever_.

ADDER-STONE, the name given in different parts of Britain to certain rounded perforated stones or glass beads found occasionally, and supposed to have a kind of supernatural efficacy in curing the bites of adders. They are believed to have been anciently used as spindle-whorls, that is, a kind of small fly-wheels to keep up the rotatory motion of the spindle.

ADDER'S-TONGUE, a species of British fern (_Ophioglossum vulg[=a]tum_), whose spores are produced on a spike, supposed to resemble a serpent's tongue.

ADDER'S-WORT, a name of snakeweed or bistort (_Polyg[)o]num Bistorta_), from its supposed virtue in curing the bite of serpents.

AD'DINGTON, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, born 1757, died 1844. Entered Parliament, 1783, as a warm supporter of Pitt. Was elected speaker of the House of Commons, 1789, and in 1801 invited by the king to form an administration, chiefly signalized by the conclusion of the Peace of Amiens. Quarrelled with Pitt, whom he bitterly attacked. Was home secretary from 1812 till 1822, his repressive policy making him remarkably unpopular with the nation at large. Retired from official life in 1824.

ADDIS ABE'BA, or ADIS ABBA'BA, a town in the south of Abyssinia, in Shoa, ranking as capital of the country, being chief residence of the negus or sovereign. It stands among mountains, at the height of 10,000 feet, and is a primitive place, but now has telegraphic connection with Jibouti and Massawa, and since 1917 is the terminus of the railway running inland from Jibouti by way of Harar. Pop. 50,000.

AD'DISON, Rt. Hon. Christopher, P.C., M.D., Cabinet Minister. Dr. Addison was born 19th June, 1869, and educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, and St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, where he was a lecturer for a time. He was elected Member of Parliament for the Hoxton Division, Shoreditch, in 1910, and was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education from 1914 to 1915. From 1916 to 1917 he was Minister of Munitions; he was President of the Local Government Board from January to June, 1919, when he became Minister of Health. He has written and edited several works on medical subjects.

AD'DISON, Joseph, an eminent English essayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison, afterwards Dean of Lichfield, born at Milston, Wiltshire, 1st May, 1672, died 17th June, 1719. He was educated at the Charterhouse, where he became acquainted with Steele, and afterwards at Oxford. He held a fellowship from 1697 till 1711, and gained much praise for his Latin verse. He secured as his earliest patron the poet Dryden, who inserted some of his verses in his _Miscellanies_ in 1693. A translation of the fourth _Georgic_, with the exception of the story of _Aristaeus_, by Addison, appeared in the same collection in 1694, and he subsequently translated for it two and a half books of Ovid. Dryden also prefixed his prose essay on Virgil's _Georgics_ to his own translation of that poem, which appeared in 1697. An early patron of his was Charles Montague, afterwards Earl of Halifax; another was Lord Somers, who procured him a pension of L300 a year to enable him to qualify for diplomatic employments by foreign travels. He spent from the autumn of 1699 to that of 1703 on the Continent, where he became acquainted with Malebranche, Boileau, &c. During his residence abroad his tragedy of _Cato_ is supposed to have been written. During his journey across Mont Cenis he wrote his _Letter from Italy_, esteemed the best of his poems, and in Germany his _Dialogues on Medals_, which was not published till after his death. His _Remarks on Several Parts of Italy in the Years 1701-3_ was published in 1705. His political friends lost power on the death of William III, but _The Campaign_, a poem on the battle of Blenheim, procured him an appointment as a commissioner of appeal on excise. In 1706 he received an under-secretaryship, in 1707 accompanied Halifax on a mission to Hanover, in 1709 became secretary to the Viceroy of Ireland, and keeper of the records. In 1708 he was elected Member of Parliament for Lostwithiel, a seat he exchanged in 1710 for Malmesbury, which place he continued to represent till his death. From Oct., 1709, to Jan., 1711, he contributed 75 papers to the _Tatler_, either wholly by himself or in conjunction with Steele, thus founding the new literary school of the Essayists. For the _Spectator_ (2nd Jan., 1711, to 6th Dec., 1712) he wrote 274 papers, all signed by one of the four letters C., L., I., O. His tragedy of _Cato_, produced April, 1713, ran for twenty nights, and was translated into French, Italian, German, and Latin. His other contributions to periodicals included 51 papers to the _Guardian_ (May to Sept., 1713), 24 papers to a revived _Spectator_ conducted by Budgell, and 2 papers to Steele's _Lover_. On the death of Queen Anne he successively became secretary to the lords justices, secretary to the Irish viceroy, and one of the lords commissioners of trade. He published the _Freeholder_ (23rd Dec., 1715, to 9th June, 1716), a political _Spectator_. In August, 1716, he married the Countess of Warwick, a marriage which did not increase his happiness. He retired from public life, March, 1718, with a pension of L1500 a year. He formed a close friendship with Swift, and was chief of a distinguished literary circle. He had literary quarrels with Pope and Gay, the former of whom in revenge wrote the satire contained in his lines on Atticus in the _Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot_. He also had a paltry quarrel over politics with his old friend Steele. His death took place at Holland House, its cause being dropsy and asthma. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing remains to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson: "Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison". He had great conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the strongest terms of the enjoyment derived from his society, but he was extremely reserved before strangers. His _Dialogues on Medals_ and _Evidences of the Christian Religion_ were published posthumously in Tickell's collected edition of his works.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Courthope, _Addison_ (English Men of Letters Series); _Essays from the Spectator_, edited by Henry Morley.

ADDISON'S DISEASE (from Dr. Addison, Guy's Hospital, London, who traced the disease to its source), a fatal disease, the seat of which is the two glandular bodies placed one at the front of the upper part of each kidney, and called _suprarenal capsules_. It is characterized by anaemia or bloodlessness, extreme prostration, and the brownish or olive-green colour of the skin. Death usually results from weakness, and commonly takes place within a year.

ADDLED PARLIAMENT, a Parliament called 5th April, 1614, in order to legalize the customs duties imposed by James I, but which, proceeding to the redress of grievances instead of granting supply, was dissolved, 7th June, without passing a single Bill.

ADDRESS, a document containing an expression of thanks, congratulation, satisfaction, or dissatisfaction, &c. It is the custom of the British Parliament to return an address to the speech delivered by the Sovereign at the commencement of every session.

ADDRESS, Forms of. The following are the principal modes of formally addressing titled personages or persons holding official rank in Great Britain:--

_The King or Queen._--Address in writing: To the King's (Queen's) most excellent Majesty. Say: Sire or Madam, Your Majesty.

_The Royal Family._--His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) the Prince of Wales, His Royal Highness the Duke of C----, His Royal Highness Prince A----. A royal duke should be addressed as Sir, not My Lord Duke; and referred to as Your Royal Highness. A princess is addressed Her Royal Highness the Duchess of ----, Her Royal Highness Princess A----; and personally as Madam, Your Royal Highness.

_Duke and Ducal Family._--His Grace the Duke of ----; My Lord Duke, Your Grace. Her Grace the Duchess of ----; Madam, Your Grace. The duke's eldest son is in law only an esquire, but in courtesy takes a secondary title of his father, and is addressed as if he held it by right. A younger son is addressed Lord J---- B----; My Lord, Your Lordship; a daughter, Lady M---- B---- (Christian and surname); Madam, Your Ladyship. A duke's, marquis's, or earl's daughter marrying a commoner simply changes her surname for his.

_The Lord-lieutenant of Ireland_ is styled His Excellency, or, if a duke, His Grace, and addressed according to his titular rank.

_Marquess._--The Most Honourable the Marquess of ----; My Lord Marquess, My Lord. The eldest son has a secondary title of his father, as in the case of a duke's eldest son; the younger sons and the daughters are all addressed as the younger sons and daughters of a duke.

_Earl._--The Right Honourable the Earl of ----; My Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Countess of----; Madam, Your Ladyship. The eldest son is addressed by a secondary title of his father; younger son, The Honourable G---- T----; Sir; the daughter, as duke's and marquess's daughter.

_Viscount._--The Right Honourable the Viscount ----; My Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Viscountess ----; Madam, Your Ladyship. Son: The Honourable A---- B---- (Christian and surname); Sir. Daughter: The Honourable J---- C---- (Christian and surname); Madame; if married, The Honourable Mrs. ---- (married name).

_Baron._--The Right Honourable Lord ----; My Lord, Your Lordship. The Right Honourable the Lady ----; Madam, your Ladyship. Son: The Honourable J---- C----; Sir. Daughter: The Honourable M---- H----; if married, The Honourable Mrs. ----, same as viscount's daughter.

_Baronet._--Sir A---- B----, Baronet; Sir; more familiarly Dear Sir A----.

_Knight._--Sir C---- D----, Kt., or K.C.S.I., K.C.B., G.C.B., &c., according to rank. The wives of baronets and knights are styled Lady, Lady ----.

_Archbishop._--His Grace the Lord Archbishop of ----; My Lord Archbishop; Your Grace. An archbishop is also styled Most Reverend.

_Bishop._--The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of ----; My Lord. The wives of prelates have no special title. Bishops not connected with the English established church may be addressed--The Right Reverend Bishop ----; Right Reverend Sir.

_Dean._--The Very Reverend; Sir; Mr. Dean.