Part 20

AL'CAMO, a city in the west of Sicily, 2-1/2 miles south of the Gulf of Castellamare, near the site of the ancient Segesta, the ruins of which, including a well-preserved Doric temple and a theatre, as well as the remains of Moorish occupation, are still to be found here. The district is celebrated for its wine. Pop. 32,200.

ALCANIZ ([.a]l-k[.a]n-y[=e]th'), a town of north-eastern Spain (Aragon). Pop. 8750.

ALCAN'TARA (Ar., 'the bridge'), an ancient town and frontier fortress of Spain, on the Tagus, on a rocky acclivity, and enclosed by ancient walls. Pop. 3224.--_Order of Alcantara_, an ancient Spanish order of knighthood instituted for defence against the Moors in 1156, and made a military religious order in 1197.

ALCARRAZA ([.a]l-k[.a]r-r[:a]'th[.a]), a vessel made of a kind of porous, unglazed pottery, used in Spain to hold drinking-water, which, oozing slightly through the vessel, is kept cool by the evaporation that takes place at the surface. Similar vessels have been long used in Egypt and elsewhere.

ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN ([.a]l-k[:a]'th[.a]r d[=a] s[.a]n-_h_w[:a]n), a town of Spain, province of Ciudad-Real (New Castile), with manufactures of soap, saltpetre, gunpowder, chocolate, &c. Pop. 13,645.

ALCE'DO. See _Kingfisher_.

ALCES'TIS, in Greek mythology, wife of Admetus, King of Thessaly. Her husband was ill, and, according to an oracle, would die unless someone made a vow to meet death in his stead. This was secretly done by Alcestis, and Admetus recovered. After her decease Hercules brought her back from the infernal regions.

AL'CHEMY, or ALCHYMY, the art which in former times occupied the place of and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to the discovery of the means of indefinitely prolonging human life, and of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver. Among the alchemists it was generally thought necessary to find a substance which, containing the original principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving all substances into their elements. This general solvent, or _menstruum universale_, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was called the _philosophers' stone_, _lapis philosophorum_, and its pretended possessors were known as _adepts_. Alchemy flourished chiefly in the Middle Ages, though how old such notions might be as those by which the alchemists were inspired it is difficult to say. There are many stories about the mystic origin of alchemy. The art is said to have been taught by the fallen angels, by Isis, or by Miriam, sister of Moses, or by John the Baptist. According to Suidas, Egypt was the home of alchemy, and the mythical Hermes Trismegistus of pre-Christian times was said to have left behind him many books of magical and alchemical learning, and after him alchemy received the name of the _hermetic art_. At a later period chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among the Arabians, and by them the pursuit was introduced into Europe. Many of the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they were afterwards prohibited from studying it by the popes. Thus Albertus Magnus is said to have been the author of a work _De Alchimia_, and several treatises on the subject are attributed to Thomas Aquinas. But even Pope John XXII is said to have worked at the science at Avignon. Raymond Lully, or Lullius, a famous alchemist of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, is said to have changed for King Edward I a mass of 50,000 lb. of quicksilver into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined. Among other alchemists may be mentioned John Cremer, Abbot of Westminster (1327-77), Nicholas Flamel (1330-80), Basilius Valentinus, Isaac of Holland, and Paracelsus (1493-1541). With the growth of chemistry, the recognition of the chemical elements as forming a large number of distinct substances, and the conception of the fixed unalterable nature of the atoms, attempts to transform the base metals into gold were largely abandoned as being unscientific. But the most modern view of matter, namely, that the atoms of all elements are composed of numerous electrons, favours the idea of the transmutability of elements, and the production of helium from radium (see these articles) by Ramsay shows the possibility of this transmutation.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pattison-Muir, _Alchemy, or the Beginnings of Chemistry_ (Hodder & Stoughton: Useful Knowledge Series); H. S. Redgrove, _Alchemy, Ancient and Modern_.

ALCIBI'ADES (-d[=e]z), a famous Athenian statesman and general of high family and of great abilities, but of no principle, was born at Athens in the 82nd Olympiad, 450 B.C., being the son of Cleinias, and a relative of Pericles, who also was his guardian. In youth he was remarkable for the beauty of his person, no less than for the dissoluteness of his manners. He came under the influence of Socrates, but little permanent effect was produced on his character by the precepts of the sage. He acquired great popularity by his liberality in providing for the amusements of the people, and after the death of Cleon attained a political ascendancy which left him no rival but Nicias. Thus he played an important part in the long-continued Peloponnesian war. In 415 he advocated the expedition against Sicily, and was chosen one of the leaders, but before the expedition sailed he was charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and mutilating the busts of Hermes, which were set up in public all through Athens. Rather than stand his trial he went over to Sparta, divulged the plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was cursed by the ministers of religion. He soon left Sparta and took refuge with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes, ingratiating himself by his affectation of Persian manners, as he had previously done at Sparta by a similar affectation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue for his return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian alliance, and after a while he was recalled and his banishment cancelled. He, however, remained abroad for some years in command of the Athenian forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407 B.C. he returned to Athens, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He once more went over to the Persians, taking refuge with the satrap Pharnabazus of Phrygia, and here he was assassinated in 404 B.C. The authorities for his life are Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos.

ALCINOUS (al-sin'o-us), King of the Phaeacians. See _Ulysses_.

ALCIRA ([.a]l-th[=e]'r[.a]), a town of Spain, province of Valencia, on the Jucar, founded by the Carthaginians. Fruits, rice, &c., are grown. Pop. 22,050.

ALC'MAN, the chief lyric poet of Sparta, a Lydian by birth, flourished between 671 B.C. and 631, and wrote (in the Doric dialect) love songs, hymns, paeans, &c., of which only fragments remain.

ALCME'NA. See _Amphitryon_.

ALCO, a small variety of dog, with a small head and large pendulous ears, found wild in Mexico and Peru, and also domesticated.

ALCOBACA ([.a]l-k[=o]-b[:a]'s[.a]), a small town of Portugal, 50 miles north of Lisbon, celebrated for a magnificent Cistercian monastery founded in 1148 by Don Alphonso I, and completed in 1222. It contains the tombs of Alphonso II, Alphonso III, Pedro I and his wife Ines de Castro.

AL'COHOL, or ETHYL ALCOHOL, C_2H_6O, is a substance obtained by allowing the juice of the grape to undergo a change known as fermentation. It is only in modern times that alcohol has been isolated and its properties examined. Alcohol is now prepared in enormous quantities, both for industrial purposes and for the preparation of alcoholic beverages, from substances rich in sugar or in starch. Potatoes and maize form the main source of alcohol. These are treated with steam under pressure in specially-constructed tanks to extract starchy materials. The starch so liberated is then fermented by means of a substance diastase. This treatment transforms sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The solution is then filtered to remove all insoluble matter, proteids, &c., and from this solid residue, cattle-feeding cakes are made. This treatment yields a solution containing 9-10 per cent alcohol. The solution is fractionally distilled, using a special form of distilling column. The most volatile part of the distillate, first runnings, contains acetaldehyde, the second fraction contains the bulk of the alcohol and some water, and the least volatile portion, last runnings, fusel oil and higher alcohols. By this means a liquid containing 80-95 per cent alcohol, rectified spirits, is obtained. For preparation of beverages, fusel oil must be carefully separated from alcohol, as fusel oil has an injurious effect physiologically. The removal of the last traces of water from alcohol is very troublesome. It is repeatedly distilled over quicklime or freshly-ignited potassium carbonate, giving an alcohol containing 98-99 per cent alcohol. The small quantity of water still contained is removed by leaving it in contact with metallic calcium. An alcohol containing more than 96 per cent alcohol is known as _absolute_. Pure alcohol is a colourless poisonous liquid boiling at 78deg C., possessing a strong odour and a burning taste. It is inflammable and mixes with water in all proportions and has a specific gravity 0.80625 at 0deg C. Very low temperatures convert it into a glassy solid, melting at -117deg C., hence it may be used in thermometers for low-temperature measurements. Alcohol burns with a non-luminous flame and gives out great heat; it is used, therefore, in various types of lamps for heating purposes. It is also used as a fuel for motors and is a very valuable solvent for many substances such as resin, oils, colouring-matter, varnishes, and ethereal essences. The so-called 'solid alcohol' can be obtained by dissolving 30 to 40 parts of collodion in 100 parts of alcohol, a solid which separates and burns like alcohol, leaving no residue. Alcohol is the important constituent of all alcoholic beverages and it is due to its presence that wine, whisky, &c., have a stimulating and intoxicating effect on the nervous system. Beverages such as beer, wine, cider, &c., are prepared by direct fermentation of sugars obtained in fruit juices in the case of wine and cider and from barley in the case of beer. These contain varying amounts of alcohol, thus wine may contain from 8 to 10 per cent of alcohol, whilst beer contains 3 to 5 per cent. Whisky, brandy, &c., contain more alcohol, 50-70 per cent, and for the preparation of these the alcohol used must be distilled and purified after fermentation. The alcohol content of an aqueous solution may be deduced from a determination of the specific gravity of the solution or directly by the Alcoholometer. This gives percentage by volume. The amount of alcohol present in any alcoholic beverage cannot be obtained directly, but if 1/3 of the liquid be distilled and the distillate made up to the original volume, then the alcohol may be determined by the Alcoholometer. The name alcohol is applied generally in chemistry to a large group of substances, containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which have chemical properties analogous to those of ethyl alcohol.

AL'COHOLISM, a morbid condition of the body (especially of the nervous system) brought on by the immoderate use of alcoholic liquors.

ALCOHOLOM'ETER, an instrument constructed on the principle of the hydrometer, to determine from the specific gravity of spirituous liquors the percentage of alcohol they contain, the scale marking directly the required proportion. If the liquor contain anything besides water and alcohol, previous distillation is necessary.

ALCO'RAN. See _Koran_.

AL'COTT, LOUISA MAY, a distinguished American authoress, born in 1833. She wrote a number of books chiefly intended for the young: _Little Women_ (1867), _An Old-fashioned Girl_ (1869), _Little Men_ (1871), _Jack and Jill_ (1880), &c. Died in 1888.

[Illustration: Alcove. French; late sixteenth century]

AL'COVE, a recess in a room, usually separated from the rest of the room by columns, a balustrade, or by curtains, and often containing a bed or seats.

ALCOY', a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 miles north by west of Alicante, in a richly-cultivated district. There is a Roman bridge over the river, and the town has a very picturesque appearance; its chief manufactures are paper and woollen goods. On the 22nd of April an annual feast is celebrated by the inhabitants of the town commemorating a victory over the Moors in 1257. Pop. 33,896.

ALCUDIA, Duke of. See _Godoy_.

ALCUIN (alk'win; in his native tongue _Ealhwine_), a learned Englishman, the confidant, instructor, and adviser of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). He was born at York in 735, and was educated at York School, of which he subsequently was head master. Alcuin having gone to Rome, Charlemagne became acquainted with him at Parma, invited him in 782 to his Court, and made use of his services in his endeavours to civilize his subjects. To secure the benefit of his instructions, Charlemagne established at his Court a school, called _Schola Palatina_, or the Palace School. In the royal academy Alcuin was called _Flaccus Albinus_. Most of the schools in France were either founded or improved by him; thus he founded the school in the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school in York. Alcuin left the Court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to his death in 804. He left works on theology, philosophy, rhetoric, also poems and letters, all of which have been published. His letters, 232 of which were addressed to Charlemagne, form the most important part of his work. As a philosopher, Alcuin, though lacking in originality, exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries. The expression of 'scholasticism' is attributed to him.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. J. B. Gaskoin, _Alcuin, His Life and his Work_, J. B. Mullinger, _The Schools of Charles the Great_.

ALCYONA'RIA, coelenterate animals forming a great division of the class

## Actinozoa (see _Sea-anemone_). These animals are nearly all composite, and

the individual polyps have mostly eight tentacles. They include the organ-pipe corals, sea-pens, fan-corals, &c., as also the red coral of commerce. The polyps resemble those of the genus Alcyonium in structure, and in the number and arrangement of the tentacles. See _Alcyonium_.

ALCYO'NIUM, a genus of coelenterate animals, one familiar species of which, dredged around the British coasts--_A. digit[=a]tum_--is named 'Dead-Men's Fingers', or 'Cow's Paps', from its lobed or digitate appearance. It grows attached to stones, shells, and other objects. It consists of a mass of little polyps, each polyp possessing eight little fringed tentacles disposed around a central mouth. The Alcyonium forms the type of the _Alcyonaria_.

AL'DAN, a river of Eastern Siberia, a tributary of the Lena, 1200 miles in length. The Aldan Mountains run along parallel to it on the left for 400 miles.

ALDEB'ARAN, a star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to the Greeks as the Hyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it to contain antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, &c.

ALDEBURGH ([a:]ld'bu-ru), a municipal borough of England, on the coast of Suffolk, more important formerly than it is now, having suffered from encroachments of the sea. The poet Crabbe was born there in 1754. Pop. 2892.

AL'DEHYDE, in chemistry, the generic name given to the compounds of alcohol intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Common aldehyde (C_2H_4O) is derived from spirit of wine by oxidation, and is a colourless, limpid, volatile, and inflammable liquid, with a peculiar ethereal odour, which is suffocating when strong; specific gravity, 0.79. Atmospheric oxygen converts it into acetic acid. It decomposes oxide of silver, depositing a brilliant film of metallic silver; hence it is used in silvering curved glass surfaces.

[Illustration: Common Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_)]

ALDER ([a:]l'd[.e]r; Alnus), a genus of plants of the sub-ord. Betulaceae (Birch), (nat. ord. Amentaceae). Fourteen species are known as small trees or shrubs indigenous to temperate and colder regions of the globe; eight of these are found in Central and Western Europe. The only species indigenous to Britain is the common alder (_Alnus glutin[=o]sa_), a tree growing in wet situations in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Its wood, light and soft and of a reddish colour, is used for a variety of purposes, and is well adapted for work which is to be kept constantly in water. Alder is still largely used in gunpowder manufacture, and the roots and knots furnish a beautifully-veined wood well suited for cabinet work; it is used for cigar-boxes in East Prussia and West Russia. The bark is used in tanning and leather-dressing, and by fishermen for staining their nets. This and the young twigs are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different shades of yellow and red. With the addition of copperas it yields a black dye.

ALDERLEY EDGE, a town of England, Cheshire, about 8 miles south-west of Stockport. Pop. (1921), 3072.

AL'DERMAN ([a:]l'd[.e]r-; Anglo-Saxon _ealdorman_, from _ealdor_, older, and _man_), among the Anglo-Saxons a person of a rank equivalent to that of an earl or count, the governor of a shire or county, and member of the _witena-gemot_ or great council of the nation. Aldermen played an important role already before the Constitution of Egbert, but reached their highest power during the reign of Alfred the Great, who had married the daughter of an alderman. Aldermen, at present, are officers associated with the mayor of a city for the administration of the municipal government in England and the United States.

AL'DERNEY (Fr. _Aurigny_), an island belonging to Britain, off the coast of Normandy, 10 miles due west of Cape La Hogue, and 60 from the nearest point of England, the most northerly of the Channel Islands, between 3 and 4 miles long, and about 1-1/4 broad. The coast is bold and rocky; the interior is fertile. About a third of the island is occupied by grass lands; and the Alderney cows, a small-sized but handsome breed, are famous for the richness of their milk. The climate is mild and healthy. A judge, with six 'jurats', chosen by the people for life, and twelve 'douzainiers', representatives of the people, form a kind of local legislature. The French language still prevails among the inhabitants, but all understand and many speak English. The _Race of Alderney_ is the strait between the coast of France and this island. Pop. 2561.

ALDERSHOT ([:a]l'd[.e]r-), a town and military station in England, the latter having given rise to the former. The 'camp' was originated in 1854 by the purchase by Government of a tract of moorland known as Aldershot Heath, on the confines of Surrey, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The object was to accustom both officers and soldiers to act more readily when drawn up in brigades and divisions, their practice having been limited for the most part, since the termination of the French war, to the movements of battalions and companies. It was also deemed advisable to accustom the army to camp life, and to exercise the men in all the evolutions and movements which they might be required to perform when brought into actual contact with the enemy. The accommodation provided for the army, officers as well as men, consisted at first of wooden huts; but these have been superseded by brick barracks, and altogether the money expended on the camp has amounted to over L3,000,000. The men are exercised in marching, skirmishing, and similar field operations, which are carried on during the summer months with great activity; they are also instructed in the camp in cooking and other duties. The troops at Aldershot in summer include a number of Territorials, Senior and Junior O.T.C., &c. The town is in the neighbourhood of the barracks, immediately beyond the Government ground, and in Hampshire. It contains several churches, and has schools, newspapers, literary institutes, music-halls &c. Aldershot gives its name to a parliamentary division of Hants. Pop. (1921), 28,756.

ALD'HELM, an Anglo-Saxon scholar and prelate, Abbot of Malmesbury and Bishop of Sherborne, born 640 (?), died 709. He was a great fosterer of learning and builder of churches, and has left Latin writings on theological subjects.

AL'DINE EDITIONS, the name given to the works which proceeded from the press of Aldus Manutius and his family at Venice (1494-1592), Rome (1562-70), and Bologna. (See _Manutius_.) Recommended by their value, as well as by a splendid exterior, they have gained the respect of scholars and the attention of book-collectors. Many of them are the first printed editions (_editiones principes_) of Greek and Latin classics. Others are texts of the modern Italian authors. These editions are of importance in the history of printing. The editions printed by Aldus Manutius the Elder are, however, much more valuable than those issued by his descendants. Among the former are the first edition of the works of Aristotle in 5 vols., and the works of Virgil, Horace, and Petrarch. Aldus had nine kinds of Greek type, and no one before him printed so much and so beautifully in this language. Of the Latin character he procured fourteen kinds of type.

ALDOBRANDI'NI, the name of a Florentine family, subsequently of princely rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope (Clement VIII) and several cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of learning.--_Aldobrandini Marriage_, one of the most beautiful ancient fresco paintings, belonging probably to the time of Augustus, discovered in 1606 on Mount Aquilinus at the very spot where once were the gardens of Maecenas, and acquired by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII, now in the Vatican. It represents a marriage scene in which ten persons are portrayed. There is a beautiful copy of this fresco by Poussin in the Galleria Doria at Rome.

AL'DRED, or EALDRED, Anglo-Saxon prelate, Bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York, born 1000(?), died 1069. He improved the discipline of the Church and built several monastic churches. On the death of Edward the Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having submitted to the Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made subservient to the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well as Matilda.

ALD'RICH, Henry, Dean of Christ Church, Oxford; born in 1647, died in 1710; distinguished as a philosopher, an architect, and as a musician. His _Compendium of Logic_ was a textbook till long past the middle of last century. He adapted many of the works of the older musicians, such as Palestrina and Carissimi, to the liturgy of the Church of England, and composed many services and anthems, some of which are still heard in English cathedrals.

ALDRICH, Thomas Bailey, the most conspicuous American poet of his generation. Born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on 11th Nov., 1836; died at Boston in March, 1907. He edited _Every Saturday_ in Boston from 1865 to 1874, and the _Atlantic Monthly_ from 1881 to 1890. He was a poet of some skill, the chief characteristic of his lyrics being refinement and finish. Some of his short stories have been rarely surpassed by other American writers. Among his volumes of verse are: _The Ballad of Babie Bell_ (1856); _Cloth of Gold_ (1874); _Lyrics and Sonnets_ (1880); _Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book_ (1881); _Unguarded Gates and other Poems_ (1895), &c. His prose works include: _Story of a Bad Boy_ (1870); _Marjorie Daw and other People_ (1873); _The Stillwater Tragedy_ (1880); _Two Bites of a Cherry_ (1893).

ALDROVAN'DI, Ulysses, a distinguished Italian naturalist; born 1522, died 1607. He was professor at Bologna, and established botanical gardens and a museum of natural history there; wrote a work on natural history in 14 vols. His _Antidotarii Bononiensis epitome_ (1574) has served as a model for all Pharmacopoeias published in later years.