Part 15

AGRIP'PA, von Nettesheim, Cornelius Henry, born in 1486 at Cologne, soldier, doctor, and, by common reputation, a magician. In his youth he was secretary to the Emperor Maximilian I; he subsequently served seven years in Italy, and was knighted. On quitting the army he devoted himself to science, became famous as a magician and alchemist, and was involved in disputes with the churchmen. After an active, varied, and eventful life he died at Grenoble in 1534 or 1535. His works were published at Lyons in 1550.

AGRIPPI'NA, the name of several Roman women, among whom we may mention: 1. The youngest daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and wife of C. Germanicus; a heroic woman, adorned with great virtues. Tiberius, who hated her for her virtues and popularity, banished her to the Island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death in A.D. 33. 2. A daughter of the last mentioned, and the mother of Nero, by Domitius Ahenobarbus. Her third husband was her uncle, the Emperor Claudius, whom she subsequently poisoned to secure the government of the Empire through her son Nero. After ruling a few years in her son's name he became tired of her ascendency, and caused her to be assassinated (A.D. 60).

AGROPYRON, a genus of grasses most of which are perennials. The root-stalks of _Agropyron repens_ (_Radix Graminis_) have aperient and diuretic properties.

AGROSTEM'MA. See _Corncockle_.

AGROS'TIS, a genus of grasses, consisting of many species, and valuable as pasture-grasses. The bent-grasses belong to the genus.

AG'TELEK, a village in Hungary, near the road from Pesth to Kassa, with about 600 inhabitants, celebrated for one of the largest and most remarkable stalactitic caverns in Europe.

AGUA ([.a]g'w[.a]), an active volcano of Central America, in Guatemala, rising to the height of 15,000 feet. It has twice destroyed the old city of Guatemala, in its immediate vicinity.

AGUARA ([.a]-gw[:a]'r[.a]). See _Agouara_.

AGUARDIENTE ([.a]-gw[:a]r-d[=e]-en'te), a popular spirituous beverage of Spain and Portugal, a kind of coarse brandy, made from red wine, from the refuse of the grapes left in the wine-press, &c., generally flavoured with anise; also a Mexican alcoholic drink distilled from the fermented juice of the agave.

AGUAS CALIENTES ([.a]g'w[.a]s k[.a]-l[=e]-en't[=a]s; lit. 'warm waters'), a town 270 miles N.W. of Mexico, capital of the State of its own name, named from the thermal springs near it; has manufactures of cottons and a considerable trade. Pop. 45,198.--Aguas Calientes State has an area of 2,968 sq. miles, and a pop. of 124,500.

AGUE ([=a]'g[=u]), a kind of fever, which may be followed by serious consequences, but generally is more troublesome than dangerous. According to the length of the interval between one febrile paroxysm and another, agues are denominated _quotidian_ when they occur once in twenty-four hours, _tertian_ when they come on every forty-eight hours, _quartan_ when they visit the patient once in seventy-two hours. Ague arises from marsh miasmata, a temperature above 60deg being, however, apparently required to produce it. To cure the disease and prevent the recurrence, quinine and various other bitter and astringent drugs are given with complete success in the majority of cases.

AGUE-CAKE, a tumour caused by enlargement and hardening of the spleen, often the consequence of ague or intermittent fever.

AGUESSEAU ([.a]-ges-[=o]), Henri Francois d', a distinguished French jurist and statesman, born at Limoges in 1668; was in 1690 advocate-general at Paris, and at the age of thirty-two procureur-general of the Parliament. He risked disgrace with Louis XIV by successfully opposing the famous papal bull _Unigenitus_. He was made chancellor in 1717, was deprived of his office in 1718 on account of his opposition to Law's system of finance, but had to be recalled in 1720. In 1722 he had to retire a second time; but was recalled in 1727 by Cardinal Fleury, and in 1737 again got the chancellorship, which he held till 1750. He died in 1751.

AGUILAR ([.a]-g[=e]-l[:a]r'), a town of Spain, province of Cordova, in Andalusia, in a good wine-producing district, and with a trade in corn and wine. Pop. 12,635.

AGUILAR (a-gi-l[:a]r'), Grace, an English writer, born at Hackney 1816, died at Frankfort 1847. Of Jewish parentage, she at first devoted herself to Jewish subjects, such as _The Women of Israel_, _The Jewish Faith_, &c.; but her fame rests on her novels, _Home Influence_, _A Mother's Recompense_, _Home Scenes and Heart Studies_, &c., most of which were published posthumously by her mother.

AGUILAS ([.a]-g[=e]'l[.a]s), a flourishing seaport of Southern Spain, province of Murcia, with copper and lead smelting works. Pop. 15,967.

AGULHAS ([.a]-g[u:]l'y[.a]s), Cape, a promontory, forming the most southern extremity of Africa, about 90 miles south-east of the Cape of Good Hope, rising to 455 feet above the sea, with a lighthouse.

AGU'TI. See _Agouti_.

A'HAB, the seventh King of Israel, succeeded his father Omri, 918-897 or 875-853 B.C. At the instigation of his wife Jezebel he erected a temple to Baal, and became a cruel persecutor of the true prophets. He was killed by an arrow at the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. He was succeeded by his son Ahaziah.

AHAG'GAR, a mountainous region of the Sahara, south of Algeria, with some fertile valleys, inhabited by the Tuaregs.

AHANTA. See _Gold Coast_, _West Africa_.

AHASUE'RUS, in Scripture history, a king of Persia, probably the same as Xerxes, the husband of Esther, to whom the Scriptures ascribe a singular deliverance of the Jews from extirpation.--_Ahasuerus_ is also a Scripture name for Cambyses, the son of Cyrus (_Ezra_, iv, 6), and for Astyages, King of the Medes (_Dan._ ix, 1). Ahasuerus is also the traditional name of the wandering Jew.

A'HAZ, the twelfth King of Judah, succeeded his father Jotham, 742-727 or 734-715 B.C. Forsaking the true religion, he gave himself up completely to idolatry, and plundered the temple to obtain presents for Tiglath-Pileser, King of Assyria.

AHAZI'AH.--1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth King of Israel, died from a fall through a lattice in his palace at Samaria after reigning two years (896, 895 B.C.).--2. Fifth or sixth King of Judah, and nephew of the above. He reigned but one year, and was slain (884 B.C.) by Jehu.

AHITH'OPHEL, privy-councillor to David, and confederate and adviser of Absalom in his rebellion against his father. When Hushai's advice prevailed, Ahithophel, despairing of success, hanged himself.

AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD ([:a]-m_a_d-[:a]-b[:a]d), a town of India, presidency of Bombay, in district of its own name, on the left bank of the Sabarmati, 310 miles north of Bombay. It was founded in 1412 by Ahmed Shah, and was converted by him into a great capital, adorned with splendid edifices. It came finally into the hands of the British in 1818. It is still a handsome and populous place, enclosed by a wall, with many noteworthy buildings; manufactures of fine silk and cotton fabrics, cloths of gold and silver, pottery, paper, enamel, mother-of-pearl, &c. There were disturbances here in 1919. (See _Rowlatt Act_.) Pop. 216,777.--Area of district, 3949 sq. miles; pop. 795,094.

AHMED MIRZA, Shah of Persia, born in 1898. He succeeded his father, Mohammed Ali, when the latter was deposed on 16th July, 1909.

AHMEDNAG'AR, a town of India, presidency of Bombay, in district of its own name, surrounded by an earthen wall; with manufactures of cotton and silk cloths. Near the city is the fort, built of stone and 1-1/2 miles round. Pop. (including military) 42,032.--Area of district, 6645 sq. miles; pop. 945,305.

AHMED SHAH, born 1724, died 1773, founder of the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan. On the assassination of Nadir he proclaimed himself shah, and set about subduing the provinces surrounding his realm. Among his first acts was the securing of the famed Koh-i-noor diamond, which had fallen into the hands of his predecessor. He crossed the Indus in 1748, and his conquests in Northern India culminated in the defeat of the Mahrattas at Panipat (6th Jan., 1761). Affairs in his own country necessitated his withdrawal from India, but he extended his empire vastly in other directions far beyond the limits of modern Afghanistan. He was succeeded by his son Timur.

AHRIMAN ([:a]'ri-man; in the Zend _Angromainyus_, 'spirit of evil or annihilation'), according to the dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the origin or the personification of evil, sovereign of the Devas or evil spirits, lord of darkness and of death, being thus opposed to Ormuzd (_Ahuramazda_), the spirit of good and of light.

AH'WAZ, a small Persian town on the River Karun, province of Khuzistan, at the head of river navigation, a place of some commercial note. In the neighbourhood are the vast ruins of a city supposed to date from the time of the Parthian Empire.

AI ([:a]'[=e]). See _Sloth_.

AID, a subsidy paid in ancient feudal times by vassals to their lords on certain occasions, the chief of which were: when their lord was taken prisoner and required to be ransomed, when his eldest son was to be made a knight, and when his eldest daughter was to be married and required a dowry. From the Norman Conquest to the fourteenth century the collecting of aids by the Crown was one of the forms of taxation, being afterwards regulated by Parliament.

AI'DAN, Saint, Bishop of Lindisfarne, was originally a monk of Iona, in which monastery Oswald I, who became king of Northumberland in 635, had been educated. At the request of Oswald, Aidan was sent to preach Christianity to his subjects, and established himself in Lindisfarne as the first Bishop of Durham. He died in 651.

AIDE-DE-CAMP ([=a]d-d[.e]-k[.a][n.]), a military officer who conveys the orders of a general to the various divisions of the army on the field of battle, and at other times acts as his secretary and general confidential agent.

AIDIN ([.a]-i-d[=e]n'), or GUZEL HISSAR, a town in Asia Minor, about 60 miles south-east of Smyrna, with which it is connected by rail; has fine mosques and bazaars, is the residence of a pasha, and has an extensive trade in cotton, leather, figs, grapes, &c. Pop. 35,000.

AIGRETTE' (French), a term used to denote the feathery crown attached to the seeds of various plants, such as the thistle, dandelion, &c. (called in botany _pappus_).--It is also applied to any head-dress in the form of a plume, whether composed of feathers, flowers, or precious stones.

AIGUES MORTES ([=a]g mort; Lat. _Aquae Mortuae_, 'dead waters'), a small town of Southern France, near the mouths of the Rhone, department of Gard; with ancient walls and castle; near it are lagoons, from which great quantities of salt are extracted. Pop. 4000.

AIGUILLE ([=a]'gwil; Fr., lit. a needle), a name given in the Alps to the needle-like points or tops of granite, gneiss, quartz, and other crystalline rocks and mountain masses; also applied to sharp-pointed masses of ice on glaciers and elsewhere.--It is also the name given to a peculiarly-shaped French mountain in Isere, 6500 feet high.

AIGUN ([=i]-g[u:]n'), a town of China, in Manchuria, on the Amur, with a good trade. Pop. 15,000.

AI'KIN, John, M.D., an English miscellaneous writer, born 1747, died 1822. He practised as physician at Chester, Warrington (where he taught physiology and chemistry at the Dissenters' Academy), and London; turned his attention to literature and published various works of a miscellaneous description, some in conjunction with his sister Mrs. Barbauld, including the popular _Evenings at Home_ (1792-5), written with the view of popularizing scientific subjects. His _General Biographical Dictionary_ (in 10 vols.) was begun in 1799 and finished in 1815. He was editor of the _Monthly Magazine_ from 1796 till 1807.

AI'KIN, Lucy, daughter of the preceding, was born in 1781, and died 1864. In 1810 she published _Poetical Epistles on Women_, which was followed by a number of books for the young and a novel _Lorimer_ (1814). In 1818 appeared her _Memoirs of the Court of Queen Elizabeth_, a very popular work. She afterwards produced similar works on the reigns of James I (1822) and Charles I (1833), and a _Life of Addison_ (1843). In 1824 she had published the literary remains and biography of her father. She carried on an interesting correspondence with Dr. Channing from 1826-42, which was published in 1874.

AIKMAN, William, an eminent Scottish portrait-painter, born in Forfarshire in 1682, died in 1731. He studied at Edinburgh and in Italy, visited Turkey, and spent the later portion of his life in London, where he enjoyed the friendship of most of the distinguished men of Queen Anne's time. The portrait of President Duncan Forbes (1685-1747) in the National Gallery is attributed to him.

AILAN'TO, or AILANTHUS (meaning tree of the gods), a tree, genus Ailantus, nat. ord. Simarubaceae. The _A. glandul[=o]sa_, a large and handsome tree, with pinnate leaves 1 or 2 feet long, is a native of China, but has been introduced into Europe and North America. A species of silk-worm, the ailanthus silk-worm (_Saturnia cynthia_), feeds on its leaves, and the material produced, though wanting the fineness and gloss of mulberry silk, is produced at less cost, and is more durable. The wood is hard, heavy, yellowish-white, and will take a fine polish. The tree has been in cultivation in England since 1751.

AILERON. See _Aeronautics_, _Aeroplane_.

AIL'RED (contracted form of ETHELRED), a religious and historical writer, supposed to have been born in 1097, but whether in Scotland or in England is not known, died 1166; abbot of Rievaulx, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. Wrote lives of Edward the Confessor and St. Margaret, Queen of Scotland, _Genealogy of the Kings of England_, _The Battle of the Standard_, &c.

AILSA CRAIG, a rocky islet in the Firth of Clyde, 10 miles from the coast of Ayr, of a conical form, 1097 feet high, and about 2 miles in circumference, precipitous on all sides except the north-east, where alone it is accessible, frequented by innumerable sea-fowl, including solan-geese, and covered with grass. On it is a lighthouse.

AILU'RUS. See _Panda_.

AIMARD ([=a]-m[:a]r), Gustave, French novelist, born 1818, died 1883. He lived for ten years among the Indians of North America, and wrote a number of stories dealing with Indian life, such as _Les Trappeurs de l'Arkansas_ (1858), _La Loi de Lynch_ (1859), _Les Nuits Mexicaines_ (1863), _Les Bohemes de la Mer_ (1865), which have been popular in English translations. His work is not unlike that of Fenimore Cooper.

AIN (a[n.]), a south-eastern frontier department of France, mountainous in the east (ridges of the Jura), flat or undulating in the west, divided into two nearly equal parts by the River Ain, a tributary of the Rhone; area, 2248 sq. miles; pop. (1921), 315,757. Capital, Bourg.

AINGER ([=a]n'j[.e]r), Rev. Alfred, born in 1837, died in 1904, was educated at King's College, London, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, took orders after gaining his degree, and in 1866 was appointed reader of the Temple Church, London. He was made Master of the Temple in 1893, while holding also a canonry in Bristol Cathedral, to which he had been appointed in 1887. He was highly successful as a preacher, but is chiefly known by his literary labours, especially those connected with Lamb and Hood, whose works he edited. The volumes on Lamb and on Crabbe in the 'English Men of Letters' series are by him, and he wrote a memoir of Hood for his edition of the works. A volume of his sermons under the title of _The Gospel of Human Life_ was published after his death in 1904. Cf. Edith Sichel, _Life and Letters of Canon Ainger_.

AINMILLER ([=i]n'mil-er), Max Emanuel, a German artist who may be regarded as the restorer of the art of glass-painting, born 1807, died 1870. As inspector of the State institute of glass-painting at Munich he raised this art to a high degree of perfection by the new or improved processes introduced by him. Under his supervision this establishment (which afterwards became his own) produced a vast number of painted windows for ecclesiastical and other buildings, among the principal being a series of forty windows, containing a hundred historical and scriptural pictures, in Glasgow Cathedral. Some of his work is in St. Paul's Cathedral, and his finest productions are the windows in the Cathedrals of Cologne and Regensburg.

AINOS ([=i]'n[=o]z; that is, men), the native name of an uncivilized race of people inhabiting the Japanese island of Yesso, as also Sakhalien, and the Kurile Islands, and believed to be the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan. They do not average over 5 feet in height, but are strong and active. They are very hairy, wear matted beards, and have black hair which they allow to grow till it falls over their shoulders. Their complexion is dark brown, approaching to black. They support themselves by hunting and fishing. There are numerous legends relating to the Ainos. According to one of these, of Japanese origin, they descended from the constellation of the Bear, whilst another mentions as their ancestor a certain Okikurumi who came down from heaven. The Ainos call themselves Ainu Utara, and the Chinese refer to them as the Tungi (barbarians of the East). They are very superstitious, and worship a number of gods, such as the universal god (Opitta-Kamui), the sun (Tsup-Kamui), the bear (Isho-Kamui), &c. Cf. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folklore_.

AINSWORTH, Henry, a Puritan divine and scholar, born 1571, died 1622. He passed great part of his life in Amsterdam, being from 1610 pastor of a 'Brownist' church there (the Brownists being forerunners of the Independents). He was a voluminous writer, a controversialist and commentator, and a thorough Hebrew scholar.

AINSWORTH, Robert, born in Lancashire, 1660, earned his living by keeping a private school in or near London, and died there in 1743. Among other learned works he compiled the well-known _Latin and English Dictionary_, first published in 1736, which passed through many editions, but is now entirely superseded.

AINSWORTH, William Francis, an English physician, geologist, and traveller, born 1807. He was surgeon and geologist to the Euphrates expedition under Colonel Chesney, and published _Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldaea_ (1838); _Travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Armenia_ (1842); _Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks_ (1844), &c. Died 1896.

AINSWORTH, William Harrison, an English novelist, born 1805, died 1882. He was the son of a Manchester solicitor and intended for the profession of law, but devoted himself to literature. He wrote _Rookwood_ (1834), _Jack Sheppard_, illustrated by Cruickshank (1839), and about forty other novels, including _Guy Fawkes_, _Tower of London_, _Windsor Castle_, _Lancashire Witches_, _Flitch of Bacon_, &c. His literary models were at first Sir Walter Scott and afterwards Victor Hugo's _Notre Dame de Paris_.

AIN-TAB ([.a]-in-t[:a]b'), a town of Northern Syria, 60 miles north of Aleppo; with manufactures of cottons, woollens, leather, &c., and an extensive trade. There is here an American Protestant mission. Pop. 45,000.

AINU. See _Ainos_.

AIR, the gaseous substance of which our atmosphere consists, being a mixture mainly of about 78 per cent by volume of nitrogen and 21 per cent of oxygen. The latter is absolutely essential to animal life, while the purpose chiefly served by the nitrogen appears to be to dilute the oxygen. Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved in water contains about 10 per cent more oxygen than atmospheric air. The oxygen therefore available for those animals which breathe by gills is somewhat less diluted with nitrogen, but it is very much diluted with water. For the various properties and phenomena connected with air see such articles as _Atmosphere_, _Aeronautics_, _Air-pump_, _Barometer_, _Combustion_, _Respiration_, &c.

AIR, in music (in It. _aria_), a continuous melody, in which some lyric subject or passion is expressed. The lyric melody of a single voice, accompanied by instruments, is its proper form of composition. Thus we find it in the higher order of musical works; as in cantatas, oratorios, operas, and also independently in concertos.--_Air_ is also the name often given to the upper or most prominent part in a concerted piece, and is thus equivalent to _treble_, _soprano_, &c.

AIR, or ASBEN. See _Asben_.

AIRA. See _Hair-grass_.

AIR BEDS AND CUSHIONS, often used by the sick and invalids, are composed of india-rubber or of cloth made air-tight by a solution of india-rubber, and when required for use filled with air, which thus supplies the place of the usual stuffing materials. They tend to prevent bed-sores from continuous lying in one position. They are also cheap and easily transported, as the bed or cushion, when not in use, can be packed in small compass, to be again inflated with air when wanted.

AIR-BLADDER. See _Swimming-bladder_.

AIR-BRAKE, a brake operated by air pressure, usually applied to brake, simultaneously, all the wheels of a moving train. In the Westinghouse type, by means of an ingenious 'triple valve' carried one on each carriage, the train pipe is made to serve the dual purpose of supply and control. An air-pump on the engine compresses air into the main receiver, from which it flows through a reducing valve into the train pipe. The pressure, acting on the under side of the triple valve, moves the valve to its extreme position, thereby opening a passage to an auxiliary receiver on the carriage and also putting the brake cylinder into communication with the atmosphere. A spring in the brake cylinder keeps the brakes in the 'off' position.

To apply the brakes, the pressure is lowered in the train pipe. The air pressure in the auxiliary receiver reverses the triple valve, thus admitting air to the brake cylinder and closing the outlet to atmosphere.

To remove the brakes, air from the main receiver is passed into the train pipe, and the triple valve is restored to the 'off' position. See _Traction_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. W. Wood, _Westinghouse Air-brake_; R. H. Blackhall, _Air-brake Catechism_.

AIR-CELLS, cavities in the cellular tissue of the stems and leaves of plants which contain air only, the juices of the plants being contained in separate vessels. They are largest and most numerous in aquatic plants, as in the _Vallisneria spir[=a]lis_ and the _Victoria regia_, the gigantic leaves of which latter are buoyed up on the surface of the water by their means.--The minute cells in the lungs of animals are also called air-cells. There are also air-cells in the bodies of birds. They are connected with the respiratory system, and are situated in the cavity of the thorax and abdomen, and sometimes extend into the bones. They are most fully developed in birds of powerful and rapid flight, such as the albatross.

AIRD, Thomas, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, friend of Professor Wilson, De Quincey, and Carlyle, long editor of a newspaper in Dumfries; born 1802, died 1876. He wrote _The Devil's Dream on Mount Aksbeck_; _The Old Bachelor_, &c.

AIRDRIE, a municipal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, near the Monkland Canal, 11 miles east of Glasgow, in the centre of a rich mining district, with a large cotton-mill, foundries and machine shops, breweries, &c., and collieries and ironworks in its vicinity. Pop. 24,160.

AIR-ENGINE, an engine in which air heated, and so expanded, or compressed air is used as the motive power. A great many engines of the former kind have been invented, some of which have been found to work pretty well where no great power is required. They may be said to be essentially similar in construction to the steam-engine, though of course the expansibility of air by heat is small compared with the expansion that takes place when water is converted into steam. Engines working by compressed air have been found very useful in mining, tunnelling, &c., and the compressed air may be conveyed to its destination by means of pipes. In such cases the waste air serves for ventilation and for reducing the oppressive heat.