Part 28

ALPHON'SO, the name of a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings. Among the former may be mentioned ALPHONSO I, the Conqueror, first King of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, the Conqueror and first Count of Portugal; born 1110, fought successfully against the Spaniards and the Moors, named himself King of Portugal, and was as such recognized by the Pope; died 1185.--ALPHONSO V, the African, born in 1432; succeeded his father, Edward I, 1438; conquered Tangiers in 1471; died 1481. During his reign Prince Henry the Navigator continued the important voyages of discovery already begun by the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of laws.--Among kings of Spain may be mentioned ALPHONSO X, King of Castile and Leon, surnamed the _Astronomer_, the _Philosopher_, or the _Wise_ (El Sabio); born in 1226; succeeded in 1252. Being grandson of Philip of Hohenstaufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavoured to have himself elected Emperor of Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again unsuccessfully contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was endangered by conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome, and he was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after, 1284. Alphonso was the most learned prince of his age. Under his direction or superintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable astronomical tables which go under his name (_Alphonsine Tables_), the first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish translation of the Bible.--ALPHONSO V of Aragon, I of Naples and Sicily, born in 1385, was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon, the throne of which he ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the Island of Sardinia. Queen Joanna of Naples made him her heir, but after her death in 1435 her will was disputed by Rene of Anjou. Alphonso now proceeded to take possession of Naples by force, which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and reigned till his death in 1458. He was an enlightened patron of literary men, by whom, in the latter part of his reign, his Court was thronged.--ALPHONSO XII, King of Spain, the only son of Queen Isabella II and her cousin Francis of Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1868, and till 1874 resided partly in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he studied for a time at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, being then known as Prince of the Asturias. His mother had given up her claims to the throne in 1870 in his favour, and in 1874 Alphonso came forward himself as claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by General Martinez Campos as king. He now passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically received, most of the Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican Government, which had failed to put down the Carlist party. Alphonso was successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned with little disturbance. His minister Canovas del Castillo ruined, however, Alphonso's popularity when he advised the king to conclude an alliance with Bismarck and Germany. He married first his cousin Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the Duc de Montpensier; second, Maria Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two daughters and a son.--ALPHONSO XIII, King of Spain, born in 1886, the posthumous son of Alphonso XII. His mother was appointed regent during his minority, and acted as such until 1902. On attaining his sixteenth year, the king assumed personal charge of the Government. In 1906 (31st May) he married Princess Ena, daughter of Princess Henry of Battenberg, a daughter of Queen Victoria.

ALPINE CLUB, an association of English gentlemen, originating in 1856 or 1857, having as their common bond of union a delight in making the ascent of mountains, in the Alps or elsewhere, difficult to ascend, and in investigating everything connected with mountains. Similar associations now exist in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and France.

ALPINE CROW, or ALPINE CHOUGH (_Pyrrhoc[)o]rax alp[=i]nus_), a European bird closely akin to the chough of England.

ALPINE MUSEUM, a museum established at Munich in 1911 by the German and Austrian Alpine Club. Its purpose is to spread knowledge about the Alps, and to disseminate the results of scientific research by means of exhibits and literary publications. Not only alpine geology, botany, and zoology, but also industry, custom, and costumes are well demonstrated in the exhibits.

ALPINE PLANTS, the name given to those plants whose habitat is in the neighbourhood of the snow, on mountains partly covered with it all the year round. As the height of the snow-line varies according to the latitude and local conditions, so also does the height at which these plants grow. The mean height for the alpine plants of Central Europe is about 6000 feet; but it rises in parts of the Alps and in the Pyrenees to 9000 feet, or even more. The high grounds clear of snow among these mountains present a very well marked flora, the general characters of the plants being a low dwarfish habit, a tendency to form thick turfs, stems partly or wholly woody, and large brilliantly-coloured and often very sweet-smelling flowers. They are also often closely covered with woolly hairs. In the Alps of Middle Europe the eye is at once attracted by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, primroses of different kinds, &c. Ferns and mosses of many kinds also characterize these regions. Some alpine plants are found only in one locality. Considerable success has attended the attempt to grow alpine plants in gardens, the first necessity being a situation where there is plenty of sunlight, and which is free from the shade of trees.

ALPINE WARBLER (_Accentor alp[=i]nus_), a European bird of the same genus as the hedge-sparrow.

ALPIN'IA, a genus of plants. See _Galanga_.

ALPS, the highest and most extensive system of mountains in Europe, included between lat. 44deg and 48deg N., and long. 5deg and 18deg E., covering great part of Northern Italy, several departments of France, nearly the whole of Switzerland, and a large part of Austria, while its extensive ramifications connect it with nearly all the mountain systems of Europe. The culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true centre is the St. Gothard, or the mountain mass to which it belongs, and from whose slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers of Central Europe--the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a remarkable barrier, shutting it off from the mainland of Europe, so that formerly it could hardly be approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, except through high and difficult passes. In the west this barrier approaches close to the Mediterranean coast, and near Nice there is left a free passage into the Italian peninsula between the mountains and the sea. From this point eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with the Apennines. In the opposite direction it proceeds north-west, and afterwards north to Mont Blanc, on the boundaries of France and Italy; it then turns north-east and runs generally in this direction to the Gross Glockner, in Central Tyrol, between the Rivers Drave and the Salza, where it divides into two branches, the northern proceeding north-east towards Vienna, the southern towards the Balkan Peninsula. The principal valleys of the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly shorter, and frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes or _cols_, which may usually be found by tracing a stream which descends from the mountains up to its source.

The Alps in their various great divisions receive different names. The _Maritime Alps_, so called from their proximity to the Mediterranean, extend westward from their junction with the Apennines for a distance of about 100 miles; culminating points Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet, and Grand Rioburent, 11,142 feet; principal pass, the Col di Tende (6158 feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon I. Proceeding northward the next group consists of the _Cottian Alps_, length about 60 miles; principal peaks: Monte Viso, 12,605 feet; Pic des Ecrins, 13,462; Pelvoux, 12,973. Next come the _Graian Alps_, 50 miles long, with extensive ramifications in Savoy and Piedmont; principal peaks: Aiguille de la Sassiere, 12,326 feet; Grand Paradis, 13,300; Grande Casse, 12,780. To this group belongs Mont Cenis (6765 feet), over which a carriage road was constructed by Napoleon I, while a railway now passes through the mountain by a tunnel nearly 8 miles long. These three divisions of the Alps are often classed together as the _Western Alps_, while the portion of the system immediately east of this forms the _Central Alps_. The _Pennine Alps_ form the loftiest portion of the whole system, having Mont Blanc (in France) at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 miles), and including the Alps of Savoy and the Valais. In the east the valley of the Upper Rhone separates the Pennine Alps from the great chain of the _Bernese Alps_ running nearly parallel, the great peaks of the two ranges being about 20 miles apart. The principal heights of the Pennine Alps are Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhoerner (Dom), 14,935; Weisshorn, 14,804; Matterhorn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps, the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 13,671. The pass of Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its hospice. The most easterly pass is the Simplon, 6595 feet, with a carriage road made by Napoleon I, and a tunnel leading into Italy, fully 12 miles long. Farther east are the _Lepontine Alps_, which give off a number of streams that feed the Italian lakes--Maggiore, Como, &c. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6936 feet), over which a carriage road leads to Italy, while through this mountain mass a railway tunnel more than 9 miles long has been opened. Highest peaks: Toedi, 11,887 feet; Monte Leone, 11,696. The _Rhaetian Alps_, extending east to about lat. 12deg 30', are the most easterly of the Central Alps, and are divided into two portions by the Engadine, or valley of the Inn, and also broken by the valley of the Adige; principal peaks: Piz Bernina, 13,294 feet; Ortlerspitze, 12,814; Monte Adamello, 11,832. The Brenner Pass (4588 feet), from Verona to Innsbruck, and between the Central and the Eastern Alps, is crossed by a railway. On the railway from Innsbruck to the Lake of Constance is the Arlberg Tunnel, over 6 miles long. The _Eastern Alps_ form the broadest and lowest portion of the system, and embrace the _Noric Alps_, the _Carnic Alps_, the _Julian Alps_, &c.; highest peak, the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. The height of the south-eastern continuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and they lose themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the great mountain masses which distinguish the centre of the system.

The Alps are very rich in lakes and streams. Among the chief of the former are the Lakes of Geneva, Constance, Zuerich, Thun, Brienz, on the north side; on the south Maggiore, Como, Lugano, Garda, &c. The drainage is carried to the North Sea by the Rhine, to the Mediterranean by the Rhone, to the Adriatic by the Po, to the Black Sea by the Danube.

In the lower valleys of the Alps the mean temperature ranges from 50deg to 60deg. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32deg--a height which in the snowy regions it never reaches. But even where the temperature is lowest the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great as to raise the photometer to 120deg and even higher. The exhilarating and invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions during summer has been acknowledged by all.

In respect to vegetation the Alps have been divided into six zones, depending on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The first is the olive region. This tree flourishes better on sheltered slopes of the mountains than on the plains of Northern Italy. The vine, which bears greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes exposed to the sun it flourishes to a considerable extent. The third is called the mountainous region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the distinguishing features of its vegetation. The mean temperature about equals that of Great Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth region is the sub-Alpine or coniferous. Here are vast forests of pines of various species. Most of the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. On the northern slopes pines grow to 6000, and on the southern slopes to 7000 feet above the level of the sea. This is also the region of the lower or permanent pastures where the flocks are fed in winter. The fifth is the pasture region, the term _alp_ being used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. It extends from the uppermost limit of trees to the region of perpetual snow. Here there are shrubs, rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and dwarf willows, &c. The sixth zone is the region of perpetual snow. The line of snow varies, according to seasons and localities, from 8000 to 9500 feet, but the line is not continuous, being often broken in upon. Few flowering plants extend above 10,000 feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000 feet.

At this great elevation are found the wild goat and the chamois. In summer the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, sheep, and goats, which are in winter removed to a lower and warmer level. The marmot, and white or Alpine hare, inhabit both the snowy and the woody regions. Lower down are found the wild-cat, fox, lynx, bear, and wolf; the last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other birds of prey frequent the highest elevations, the ptarmigan seeks its food and shelter among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow-line. Excellent trout and other fish are found; but the most elevated lakes are, from their low temperature, entirely destitute of fish.

The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, as yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general three zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks prevail, and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks of the central zone consist of granite, gneiss, hornblende, mica slate, and other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are also considerable elevations in the central zone that belong to the Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the beds, which are broken, tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the Alps appear to have been formed by a succession of disruptions and elevations extending over a very protracted period. Among the minerals that are obtained are iron and lead, gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal.

Extensive views of alpine scenery are now commanded by means of special railways climbing to the summit of Mont Blanc, the Jungfrau, and other mountains. The Rigi railway was one of the earliest constructed of these. Here there are hotels at the top, 5905 feet above the level of the sea, and 4468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favourite view from hence is to watch the sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Becca di Nona (8415 feet), south of Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest panoramic view to be obtained from any summit of the Alps. The most accessible glaciers are those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zermatt.

ALPUJARRAS ([.a]l-p[:o]-_h_[.a]r'r[.a]s), a district of Spain, in Andalusia, between the Sierra Nevada and the Mediterranean, mountainous, but with rich and well-cultivated valleys, yielding grain, vines, olives, and other fruits. The inhabitants are Christianized descendants of the Moors.

ALQUIFOU (al'ki-f[:o]), a sort of lead ore used by potters as a green varnish or glaze.

ALSACE ([.a]l-s[.a]s; Ger. _Elsass_), before the French revolution a province of France, on the Rhine, afterwards constituting the French departments of Haut- and Bas-Rhin, and subsequently to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1 annexed by Germany, and incorporated in the province of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine). Alsace is generally a level country, though there are several ranges of low hills richly wooded. The principal river is the Ill. Corn, flax, tobacco, grapes, and other fruits are grown. Area, 3202 sq. miles. Pop. 1,218,803. Alsace was originally a part of ancient Gaul. It afterwards became a dukedom of the German Empire. In 1268, the line of its dukes becoming extinct, it was parcelled out to several members of the empire. By the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, a great part of it was ceded to France, which afterwards seized the rest of it, this seizure being recognized by the peace of Ryswick, in 1697.

ALSACE-LORRAINE, the imperial territory, or Reichsland of Elsass-Lothringen, taken by Germany from France in 1871, and restored to France in 1919. The province is partly bounded by the Rhine; area, 5605 sq. miles. Pop. 1,874,014. Under the German system the province was divided into three districts, namely, Lorraine, Upper Alsace, and Lower Alsace, and governed by a Statthalter, having his seat at Strassburg. By the law of 31st May, 1911, a constitution was granted to Alsace-Lorraine, by which it received three votes in the Federal Council. After the signing of the armistice, French troops occupied Alsace-Lorraine, and the French Government, by a decree of 26th Nov., 1918, took over the administration of the restored territories, and French officials were installed. The three chief towns are Strassburg, Mulhausen, and Metz. About 76 per cent of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, 22 per cent Evangelical, and between 1 and 2 per cent Jews. The chief crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and hay; the potash deposits of Alsace are superior to and more extensive than those of Strassfurt, Germany. _See France; Moselle._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Harrison, _The Stolen Lands: a Study on Alsace-Lorraine_; G. W. Edwards, _Alsace-Lorraine_.

ALSA'TIA, formerly a cant name for Whitefriars, a district in London between the Thames and Fleet Street, and adjoining the Temple, which, possessing certain privileges of sanctuary, became for that reason a nest of mischievous characters who were liable to be arrested. These privileges were abolished in 1697. The name Alsatia is a Latinized form of Alsace, which, being on the frontiers of France and Germany, was a harbour for necessitous or troublesome characters from both countries.

AL'SEN, an island on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein; length, 20 miles, breadth, from 5 to 7 miles, diversified with forests, lakes, well-cultivated fields, orchards, and towns. Pop. 25,000.

AL SIRAT (s[=e]'rat), in Mahommedan belief the bridge extending over the abyss of hell, which must be crossed by everyone on his journey to heaven. It is finer than a hair, as sharp as the edge of a sword, and beset with thorns on either side. The righteous will pass over with ease and swiftness, but the wicked will fall into hell below.

ALSTROEME'RIA, a genus of South American plants, ord. Amaryllidaceae, some of them cultivated in European greenhouses and gardens. _A. Salsilla_ and _A. ov[=a]ta_ are cultivated for their edible tubers.

ALTAIC LANGUAGES (also called URAL-ALTAIC and TURANIAN), a family of languages occupying a portion of Northern and Eastern Europe, and nearly the whole of Northern and Central Asia, together with some other regions, and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic, Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic.

ALTAI MOUNTAINS ([.a]l't[=i]), an important Asiatic system on the borders of Siberia and Mongolia, partly in Russian and partly in Chinese territory, between lat. 46deg and 53deg N., long. 83deg and 91deg E., but having great eastern extensions. The Russian portion is comprised in the governments of Tomsk and Semipalatinsk, the Chinese in Dsungaria. The rivers of this region, which are large and numerous, are mostly headwaters of the Obi and Irtish. The mountain scenery is generally grand and interesting. The highest summit is Byeluka ('white mountain', from its snowy top), height 11,000 feet. The area covered by perpetual snow is very considerable, and glaciers occupy a large area. In the high lands the winter is very severe, but on the whole the climate is comparatively mild and is also healthy. The flora of the Altai Mountains greatly resembles that of the Alps, about five-sixths of the latter being found here. The mountain forests are composed of birch, alder, aspen, fir, larch, stone-pine, &c. The wild sheep has here its native home, and several kinds of deer are found. The Altai is exceedingly rich in minerals, including gold, silver, copper, and iron. The name Altai means 'gold mountain'. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and Kalmuks. The chief town is Barnaul.

ALTAMU'RA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, at the foot of the Apennines, walled, well built, and containing a magnificent cathedral. Pop. 25,616.

ALTAR ([a:]l'tar), any pile or structure raised above the ground for receiving sacrifices to some divinity. Amongst the Semites the altar was primarily the place where the victim was slaughtered, and amongst the Indo-Germanic peoples the place where it was burnt. The Greek and Roman altars were various in form, and often highly ornamental; in temples they were usually placed before the statue of the god. In the Jewish ceremonial the altar held an important place, and was associated with many of the most significant rites of religion. Two altars were erected in the tabernacle in the wilderness, and the same number in the temple. In most sections of the Christian Church the communion-table, or table on which the eucharist is placed, is called an altar. In the primitive Church it was a table of wood, but subsequently stone and metal were introduced with rich ornaments, sculpture, and painting. After the introduction of Gothic art the altar frequently became a lofty and most elaborate structure. Originally there was but one altar in a church, but later on there might be several in a large church, the chief or _high altar_ standing at the east end. Over an altar there is often a painting (an _altar-piece_), and behind it there may be an ornamental _altar-screen_ separating the choir from the east end of the church.

ALTAZ'IMUTH (also called UNIVERSAL INSTRUMENT), an astronomical instrument similar to a theodolite, having a telescope so mounted that it can be turned round in a plane perpendicular to the horizon, while it and the graduated vertical circle connected can also be turned horizontally to any point of the compass above a graduated horizontal circle. The altazimuth can thus determine the altitude and azimuth of objects, hence the name.

ALTDORF. See _Altorf_.

AL'TENA, a town of Prussia, Westphalia, 40 miles N.N.E. of Cologne; it has wire-works, rolling-mills, chain-works, manufactories of needles, pins, thimbles, &c. Pop. 14,579.

AL'TENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of Saxe-Altenburg, 23 miles south of Leipzig. It has some fine streets and many handsome buildings, including a splendid palace; it manufactures cigars, woollen yarn, gloves, hats, musical instruments, glass, brushes, &c. Pop. 39,976.

ALTERATIVES ([a:]l'-), medicines, as mercury, iodine, &c., which, administered in small doses, gradually induce a change in the habit or constitution, and imperceptibly alter disordered secretions and actions, and restore healthy functions without producing any sensible evacuation by perspiration, purging, or vomiting.

ALTER EGO (Lat., 'another I'), a second self, one who represents another in every respect. This term was formerly given, in the official style of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, to a substitute appointed by the king to manage the affairs of the kingdom, with full royal power.

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