Part 1
# Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Frost" to "Fyzabad": Volume 11, Slice 3 ### By Various
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Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's notes:
(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.
(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.
(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.
(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.
(6) RN stands for Real Number symbol and (Pd) for Partial derivative symbol
(7) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
ARTICLE FRUIT: "The covering of the seed is marked i. n is the nucellus or perisperm, enclosing the embryo-sac es, in which the endosperm is formed." 'in' amended from 'is'.
ARTICLE FRUIT: "It occupies the whole cavity of the embryo-sac, or is formed only at certain portions of it, at the apex, as in Rhinanthus, ..." 'occupies' amended from 'occupied'.
ARTICLE FUEL: "Owing to the siliceous nature of the ash of straw, it is desirable to have a means of clearing the grate bars from slags and clinkers at short intervals, and to use a steam jet to clear the tubes from similar deposits." 'straw' amended from 'sraw'.
ARTICLE FUEL: "In a research upon the heating power and other properties of coal for naval use, carried out by the German admiralty, the results tabulated below were obtained with coals from different localities." 'from' amended from 'form'.
ARTICLE FUEL: "C + 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2" '+' amended from '='.
ARTICLE FULHAM: "The principal thoroughfares are Fulham Palace Road running S. from Hammersmith, Fulham Road and King's Road, W. from Chelsea, converging and leading to Putney Bridge over the Thames; ..." 'converging' amended from 'coverging'.
ARTICLE FULLER, THOMAS: "Their eldest child, John, baptized at Broadwindsor by his father, 6th June 1641, was afterwards rector of Sidney Sussex College, edited the Worthies of England, 1662, and became rector of Great Wakering, Essex, where he died in 1687." added 'rector'.
ARTICLE FUNCTION: "When Taylor's theorem leads to a representation of the function by means of an infinite series, the function is said to be "analytic" (cf. S 21)." 'Taylor's' amended from 'Talyor's'.
ARTICLE FUNCTION: "or a series which converges uniformly may be integrated term by term." 'uniformly' amended from 'unformly'.
ARTICLE FUNGI: "Parasitism.--Some fungi, though able to live as saprophytes, occasionally enter the body of living plants, and are thus termed facultative parasites." 'Parasitism' amended from 'Parasatism'.
ARTICLE FUNGI: "Recent experiments have shown that the difficulties of getting orchid seeds to germinate are due to the absence of the necessary fungus, which must be in readiness to infect the young seedling immediately after it emerges from the seed." added 'after'.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XI, SLICE III
FROST to FYZABAD
ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
FROST FULMAR FROSTBITE FULMINIC ACID FROSTBURG FULTON, ROBERT FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS FULTON (Missouri, U.S.A.) FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY FULTON (New York, U.S.A.) FRUCTOSE FUM FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA FUMARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS FRUIT FUMAROLE FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING FUMIGATION FRUMENTIUS FUMITORY FRUNDSBERG, GEORG VON FUNCHAL FRUSTUM FUNCTION FRUYTIERS, PHILIP FUNDY, BAY OF FRY FUNERAL RITES FRY, SIR EDWARD FUNGI FRY, ELIZABETH FUNJ FRYXELL, ANDERS FUNKIA FUAD PASHA FUNNEL FUCHOW FUR FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VON FURAZANES FUCHS, LEONHARD FURETIERE, ANTOINE FUCHSIA FURFOOZ FUCHSINE FURFURANE FUCINO, LAGO DI FURIES FUEL FURLONG FUENTE OVEJUNA FURNACE FUENTERRABIA FURNEAUX, TOBIAS FUERO FURNES FUERTEVENTURA FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD FUGGER FURNESS FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS FURNISS, HARRY FUGLEMAN FURNITURE FUGUE FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES FUHRICH, JOSEPH VON FURSE, CHARLES WELLINGTON FUJI FURST, JULIUS FU-KIEN FURSTENBERG FUKUI FURSTENWALDE FUKUOKA FURTH FULA FURTWANGLER, ADOLF FULCHER OF CHARTRES FURZE FULDA FUSARO, LAGO FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES FUSELI, HENRY FULGINIAE FUSEL OIL FULGURITE FUSIBLE METAL FULHAM FUSILIER FULK (king of Jerusalem) FUSION FULK (archbishop of Reims) FUSSEN FULKE, WILLIAM FUST, JOHANN FULK NERRA FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUMA DENIS FULLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV FUSTIAN FULLER, ANDREW FUSTIC FULLER, GEORGE FUTURES FULLER, MARGARET FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON FUZE FULLER, THOMAS FYNE, LOCH FULLER, WILLIAM FYRD FULLER'S EARTH FYT, JOHANNES FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA FYZABAD
FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, _vorst_, Ger. _Frost_, from the common Teutonic verb meaning "to freeze," Dutch, _vriezen_, Ger. _frieren_; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. _pruina_, hoar-frost, cf. _prurire_, to itch, burn, _pruna_, burning coal, Sansk. _plush_, to burn), in meteorology, the act, or agent of the process, of freezing; hence the terms "hoar-frost" and "white-frost" applied to visible frozen vapour formed on exposed surfaces. A frost can only occur when the surface temperature falls below 32 deg. F., the freezing-point of water; if the temperature be between 28 deg. and 32 deg. it is a "light frost," if below 28 deg. it is a "heavy," "killing" or "black frost"; the term "black frost" is also used when no hoar-frost is present. The number of degrees below freezing-point is termed "degrees of frost." As soon as a mass of air is cooled to its dew-point, water begins to be precipitated in the form of rain, dew, snow or hail. Hoarfrost is only formed at the immediate surface of the land if the latter be at a temperature below 32 deg., and this may occur even when the temperature of the air a few feet above the ground is 12 deg.-16 deg. above the freezing-point. The heaviest hoar-frosts are formed under weather conditions similar to those under which the heaviest summer dews occur, namely, clear and calm nights, when there is no cloud to impede the radiation of heat from the surface of the land, which thereby becomes rapidly and completely cooled. The danger of frost is minimized when the soil is very moist, as for example after 10-12 mm. of rain; and it is a practice in America to flood fields on the receipt of a frost warning, radiation being checked by the light fog sheets which develop over moist soils, just as a cloud-layer in the upper atmosphere impedes radiation on a grand scale. A layer of smoke will also impede radiation locally, and to this end smoky fires are sometimes lit in such positions that the smoke may drift over planted ground which it is desirable to preserve from frost. Similarly, frost may occur in open country when a town, protected by its smoke-cloud above, is free of it. In a valley with fairly high and steep flanks frost sometimes occurs locally at the bottom, because the layer of air cooled by contact with the cold surface of the higher ground is heavier than that not so cooled, and therefore tends to flow or settle downwards along the slope of the land. When meteorological considerations point to a frost, an estimate of the night temperature may be obtained by multiplying the difference between the readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometer by 2.5 and subtracting the result from the dry bulb temperature. This rule applies when the evening air is at about 50 deg. and 30.1 in. pressure, the sky being clear. An instrument has been devised in France for the prediction of frost. It consists of a wet bulb and a dry bulb thermometer, mounted on a board on which is also a scale of lines corresponding to degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer traversing a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb. Observations for the night are taken about half an hour before sunset. By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at which the line of the dry-bulb reading meets the pointer set to the reading of the wet bulb. The scale is further divided by colours so that the observed point may fall within one of three zones, indicating certain frost, probable frost or no probability of frost.
FROSTBITE, a form of mortification (q.v.), due to the action of extreme cold in cutting off the blood-supply from the fingers, toes, nose, ears, &c. In comparatively trifling forms it occurs as "chaps" and "chilblains," but the term frostbite is usually applied only to more severe cases, where the part affected becomes in danger of gangrene. An immediate application of snow, or ice-water, will restore the circulation; the application of heat would cause inflammation. But if the mortification has gone too far for the circulation to be restored, the part will be lost, and surgical treatment may be necessary.
FROSTBURG, a town of Allegany county, Maryland, U.S.A., 11 m. W. of Cumberland. Pop. (1890) 3804; (1900) 5274 (578 foreign-born and 236 negroes); (1910) 6028. It is served by the Cumberland & Pennsylvania railway and the Cumberland & Westernport electric railway. The town is about 2000 ft. above sea-level on a plateau between the Great Savage and Dans mountains, and its delightful scenery and air have made it attractive as a summer resort. It is the seat of the second state normal school, opened in 1904. Frostburg is in the midst of the coal region of the state, and is itself almost completely undermined; it has planing mills and manufactures large quantities of fire-brick. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Natural gas is piped to Frostburg from the West Virginia fields, 120 m. away. Frostburg was first settled in 1812; was called Mount Pleasant until about 1830, when the present name was substituted in honour of Meshech Frost, one of the town's founders; and was incorporated in 1870.
FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895), American clergyman and author, was born in Boston on the 26th of November 1822, son of Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham (1793-1870), a prominent Unitarian preacher of Boston, and through his mother's family related to Phillips Brooks. He graduated from Harvard College in 1843 and from the Divinity School in 1846. He was pastor of the North Unitarian church of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1847-1855. From 1855 to 1860 he was pastor of a new Unitarian society in Jersey City, where he gave up the Lord's Supper, thinking that it ministered to self-satisfaction; and it was as a radical Unitarian that he became pastor of another young church in New York City in 1860. Indeed in 1864 he was recognized as leader of the radicals after his reply to Dr Hedge's address to the graduating students of the Divinity School on _Anti-Supernaturalism in the Pulpit_. In 1865, when he had practically given up "transcendentalism," his church building was sold and his congregation began to worship in Lyric Hall under the name of the Independent Liberal Church; in 1875 they removed to the Masonic Temple, but four years later ill-health compelled Frothingham's resignation, and the church dissolved. Paralysis threatened him and he never fully recovered his health; in 1881 he returned to Boston, where he died on the 27th of November 1895. To this later period of his life belongs his best literary work. While he was in New York he was for a time art critic of the _Tribune_. Always himself on the unpopular side and an able but thoroughly fair critic of the majority, he habitually under-estimated his own worth; he was not only an anti-slavery leader when abolition was not popular even in New England, and a radical and rationalist when it was impossible for him to stay conveniently in the Unitarian Church, but he was the first president of the National Free Religious Association (1867) and an early and ardent disciple of Darwin and Spencer. To his radical views he was always faithful. It is a mistake to say that he grew more conservative in later years; but his judgment grew more generous and catholic. He was a greater orator than man of letters, and his sermons in New York were delivered to large audiences, averaging one thousand at the Masonic Temple, and were printed each week; in eloquence and in the charm of his spoken word he was probably surpassed in his day by none save George William Curtis. Personally he seemed cold and distant, partly because of his impressive appearance, and partly because of his own modesty, which made him backward in seeking friendships.
His principal published works are: _Stories from the Life of the Teacher_ (1863), _A Child's Book of Religion_ (1866), and other works of religious teaching for children; several volumes of sermons; _Beliefs of Unbelievers_ (1876), _The Cradle of the Christ: a Study in Primitive Christianity_ (1877), _The Spirit of New Faith_ (1877), _The Rising and the Setting Faith_ (1878), and other expositions of the "new faith" he preached; _Life of Theodore Parker_ (1874), _Transcendentalism in New England_ (1876), which is largely biographical, _Gerrit Smith, a Biography_ (1878), _George Ripley_ (1882), in the "American Men of Letters" series, _Memoir of William Henry Channing_ (1886), _Boston Unitarianism, 1820-1850_ (1890), really a biography of his father; and _Recollections and Impressions, 1822-1890_ (1891).
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894), English historian, son of R.H. Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, was born at Dartington, Devon, on the 23rd of April 1818. He was educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, then the centre of the ecclesiastical revival. He obtained a second class and the chancellor's English essay prize, and was elected a fellow of Exeter College (1842). His elder brother, Richard Hurrell Froude (1803-1836), had been one of the leaders of the High Church movement at Oxford. Froude joined that party and helped J.H. Newman, afterwards cardinal, in his _Lives of the English Saints_. He was ordained deacon in 1845. By that time his religious opinions had begun to change, he grew dissatisfied with the views of the High Church party, and came under the influence of Carlyle's teaching. Signs of this change first appeared publicly in his _Shadows of the Clouds_, a volume containing two stories of a religious sort, which he published in 1847 under the pseudonym of "Zeta," and his complete desertion of his party was declared a year later in his _Nemesis of Faith_, an heretical and unpleasant book, of which the earlier part seems to be autobiographical.
On the demand of the college he resigned his fellowship at Oxford, and mainly at least supported himself by writing, contributing largely to _Fraser's Magazine_ and the _Westminster Review_. The excellence of his style was soon generally recognized. The first two volumes of his _History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_ appeared in 1856, and the work was completed in 1870. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for literary excellence, for the art with which he represents his conception of the past. He condemns a scientific treatment of history and disregards its philosophy. He held that its office was simply to record human actions and that it should be written as a drama. Accordingly he gives prominence to the personal element in history. His presentations of character and motives, whether truthful or not, are undeniably fine; but his doctrine that there should be "no theorizing" about history tended to narrow his survey, and consequently he sometimes, as in his remarks on the foreign policy of Elizabeth, seems to misapprehend the tendencies of a period on which he is writing.
Froude's work is often marred by prejudice and incorrect statements. He wrote with a purpose. The keynote of his _History_ is contained in his assertion that the Reformation was "the root and source of the expansive force which has spread the Anglo-Saxon race over the globe." Hence he overpraises Henry VIII. and others who forwarded the movement, and speaks too harshly of some of its opponents. So too, in his _English in Ireland_ (1872-1874), which was written to show the futility of attempts to conciliate the Irish, he aggravates all that can be said against the Irish, touches too lightly on English atrocities, and writes unjustly of the influence of Roman Catholicism. A strong anti-clerical prejudice is manifest in his historical work generally, and is doubtless the result of the change in his views on Church matters and his abandonment of the clerical profession. Carlyle's influence on him may be traced both in his admiration for strong rulers and strong government, which led him to write as though tyranny and brutality were excusable, and in his independent treatment of character. His rehabilitation of Henry VIII. was a useful protest against the idea that the king was a mere sanguinary profligate, but his representation of him as the self-denying minister of his people's will is erroneous, and is founded on the false theory that the preambles of the acts of Henry's parliaments represented the opinions of the educated laymen of England. As an advocate he occasionally forgets that sobriety of judgment and expression become an historian. He was not a judge of evidence, and seems to have been unwilling to admit the force of any argument or the authority of any statement which militated against his case. In his _Divorce of Catherine of Aragon_ (1891) he made an unfortunate attempt to show that certain fresh evidence on the subject, brought forward by Dr Gairdner, Dr Friedmann and others, was not inconsistent with the views which he has expressed in his _History_ nearly forty years before. He worked diligently at original manuscript authorities at Simancas, the Record Office and Hatfield House; but he used his materials carelessly, and evidently brought to his investigation of them a mind already made up as to their significance. His _Life of Caesar_ (1879), a glorification of imperialism, betrays an imperfect acquaintance with Roman politics and the life of Cicero; and of his two pleasant books of travel, _The English in the West Indies_ (1888) shows that he made little effort to master his subject, and _Oceana_ (1886), the record of a tour in Australia and New Zealand, among a multitude of other blunders, notes the prosperity of the working-classes in Adelaide at the date of his visit, when, in fact, owing to a failure in the wheat-crop, hundreds were then living on charity. He was constitutionally inaccurate, and seems to have been unable to represent the exact sense of a document which lay before him, or even to copy from it correctly. Historical scholars ridiculed his mistakes, and Freeman, the most violent of his critics, never let slip a chance of hitting at him in the _Saturday Review_. Froude's temperament was sensitive, and he suffered from these attacks, which were often unjust and always too savage in tone. The literary quarrel between him and Freeman excited general interest when it blazed out in a series of articles which Freeman wrote in the _Contemporary Review_ (1878-1879) on Froude's _Short Study_ of Thomas Becket.
Notwithstanding its defects, Froude's _History_ is a great achievement; it presents an important and powerful account of the Reformation period in England, and lays before us a picture of the past magnificently conceived, and painted in colours which will never lose their freshness and beauty. As with Froude's work generally, its literary merit is remarkable; it is a well-balanced and orderly narrative, coherent in design and symmetrical in execution. Though it is perhaps needlessly long, the thread of the story is never lost amid a crowd of details; every incident is made subordinate to the general idea, appears in its appropriate place, and contributes its share to the perfection of the whole. The excellence of its form is matched by the beauty of its style, for Froude was a master of English prose. The most notable characteristic of his style is its graceful simplicity; it is never affected or laboured; his sentences are short and easy, and follow one another naturally. He is always lucid. He was never in doubt as to his own meaning, and never at a loss for the most appropriate words in which to express it. Simple as his language is, it is dignified and worthy of its subject. Nowhere perhaps does his style appear to more advantage than in his four series of essays entitled _Short Studies on Great Subjects_ (1867-1882), for it is seen there unfettered by the obligations of narrative. Yet his narrative is admirably told. For the most part flowing easily along, it rises on fit occasions to splendour, picturesque beauty or pathos. Few more brilliant pieces of historical writing exist than his description of the coronation procession of Anne Boleyn through the streets of London, few more full of picturesque power than that in which he relates how the spire of St Paul's was struck by lightning; and to have once read is to remember for ever the touching and stately words in which he compares the monks of the London Charterhouse preparing for death with the Spartans at Thermopylae. Proofs of his power in the sustained narration of stirring events are abundant; his treatment of the Pilgrimage of Grace, of the sea fight at St Helens and the repulse of the French invasion, and of the murder of Rizzio, are among the most conspicuous examples of it. Nor is he less successful when recording pathetic events, for his stories of certain martyrdoms, and of the execution of Mary queen of Scots, are told with exquisite feeling and in language of well-restrained emotion. And his characters are alive. We may not always agree with his portraiture, but the men and women whom he saw exist for us instinct with the life with which he endows them and animated by the motives which he attributes to them. His successes must be set against his failures. At the least he wrote a great history, one which can never be disregarded by future writers on his period, be their opinions what they may; which attracts and delights a multitude of readers, and is a splendid example of literary form and grace in historical composition.
The merits of his work met with full recognition. Each instalment of his _History_, in common with almost everything which he wrote, was widely read, and in spite of some adverse criticisms was received with eager applause. In 1868 he was elected rector of St Andrews University, defeating Disraeli by a majority of fourteen. He was warmly welcomed in the United States, which he visited in 1872, but the lectures on Ireland which he delivered there caused much dissatisfaction. On the death of his adversary Freeman in 1892, he was appointed, on the recommendation of Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as regius professor of modern history at Oxford. Except to a few Oxford men, who considered that historical scholarship should have been held to be a necessary qualification for the office, his appointment gave general satisfaction. His lectures on Erasmus and other 16th-century subjects were largely attended. With some allowance for the purpose for which they were originally written, they present much the same characteristics as his earlier historical books. His health gave way in the summer of 1894, and he died on the 20th of October.