Part 2

His long life was full of literary work. Besides his labours as an author, he was for fourteen years editor of _Fraser's Magazine_. He was one of Carlyle's literary executors, and brought some sharp criticism upon himself by publishing Carlyle's _Reminiscences_ and the _Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle_, for they exhibited the domestic life and character of his old friend in an unpleasant light. Carlyle had given the manuscripts to him, telling him that he might publish them if he thought it well to do so, and at the close of his life agreed to their publication. Froude therefore declared that in giving them to the world he was carrying out his friend's wish by enabling him to make a posthumous confession of his faults. Besides publishing these manuscripts he wrote a _Life of Carlyle_. His earlier study of Irish history afforded him suggestions for a historical novel entitled _The Two Chiefs of Dunboy_ (1889). In spite of one or two stirring scenes it is a tedious book, and its personages are little more than machines for the enunciation of the author's opinions and sentiments. Though Froude had some intimate friends he was generally reserved. When he cared to please, his manners and conversation were charming. Those who knew him well formed a high estimate of his ability in practical affairs. In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, sent Froude to South Africa to report on the best means of promoting a confederation of its colonies and states, and in 1875 he was again sent to the Cape as a member of a proposed conference to further confederation. Froude's speeches in South Africa were rather injudicious, and his mission was a failure (see SOUTH AFRICA: _History_). He was twice married. His first wife, a daughter of Pascoe Grenfell and sister of Mrs Charles Kingsley, died in 1860; his second, a daughter of John Warre, M.P. for Taunton, died in 1874.

Froude's _Life_, by Herbert Paul, was published in 1905. (W. Hu.)

FRUCTOSE, LAEVULOSE, or FRUIT-SUGAR, a carbohydrate of the formula C6H12O6. It is closely related to ordinary d-glucose, with which it occurs in many fruits, starches and also in honey. It is a hydrolytic product of inulin, from which it may be prepared; but it is more usual to obtain it from "invert sugar," the mixture obtained by hydrolysing cane sugar with sulphuric acid. Cane sugar then yields a syrupy mixture of glucose and fructose, which, having been freed from the acid and concentrated, is mixed with water, cooled in ice and calcium hydroxide added. The fructose is precipitated as a saccharate, which is filtered, suspended in water and decomposed by carbon dioxide. The liquid is filtered, the filtrate concentrated, and the syrup so obtained washed with cold alcohol. On cooling the fructose separates. It may be obtained as a syrup, as fine, silky needles, a white crystalline powder, or as a granular crystalline, somewhat hygroscopic mass. When anhydrous it melts at about 95 deg. C. It is readily soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. It is sweeter than cane sugar and is more easily assimilated. It has been employed under the name diabetin as a sweetening agent for diabetics, since it does not increase the sugar-content of the urine; other medicinal applications are in phthisis (mixed with quassia or other bitter), and for children suffering from tuberculosis or scrofula in place of cane sugar or milk-sugar.

Chemically, fructose is an oxyketone or ketose, its structural formula being CH2OH.(CH.OH)3.CO.CH2OH; this result followed from its conversion by H. Kiliani into methylbutylacetic acid. The form described above is _laevo_-rotatory, but it is termed d-fructose, since it is related to d-glucose. Solutions exhibit mutarotation, fresh solutions having a specific rotation of -104.0 deg., which gradually diminishes to -92 deg. It was synthesized by Emil Fischer, who found the synthetic sugar which he named [alpha]-acrose to be (d + l)-fructose, and by splitting this mixture he obtained both the d and l forms. Fructose resembles d-glucose in being fermentable by yeast (it is the one ketose which exhibits this property), and also in its power of reducing alkaline copper and silver solutions; this latter property is assigned to the readiness with which hydroxyl and ketone groups in close proximity suffer oxidation. For the structural (stereochemical) relations of fructose see SUGAR.

FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA (1692-1768), Italian poet, was born at Genoa on the 21st of November 1692. He was originally destined for the church and at the age of fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, was shut up in a convent; but although in the following year he was induced to pronounce monastic vows, he had no liking for this life. He acquired considerable reputation as an elegant writer both of Latin and Italian prose and verse; and from 1716 to 1724 he filled the chairs of rhetoric at Brescia, Rome, Genoa, Bologna and Modena successively, attracting by his brilliant fluency a large number of students at each university. Through Cardinal Bentivoglio he was recommended to Antonio Farnese, duke of Parma, who appointed him his poet laureate; and he remained at the court of Parma until the death of Antonio, after which he returned to Genoa. Shortly afterwards, through the intercession of Bentivoglio, he obtained from the pope the remission of his monastic vows, and ultimately succeeded in recovering a portion of his paternal inheritance. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle he returned to the court of Parma, and there devoted the later years of his life chiefly to poetical composition. He died on the 20th of December 1768. As a poet Frugoni was one of the best of the school of the Arcadian Academy, and his lyrics and pastorals had great facility and elegance.

His collected works were published at Parma in 10 vols. in 1799, and a more complete edition appeared at Lucca in the same year in 15 vols. A selection from his works was published at Brescia in 1782, in 4 vols.

FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. _fructus_; _frui_, to enjoy), in its widest sense, any product of the soil that can be enjoyed by man or animals; the word is so used constantly in the Bible, and extended, as a Hebraism, to offspring or progeny of man and of animals, in such expressions as "the fruit of the body," "of the womb," "fruit of thy cattle" (Deut. xxviii. 4), &c., and generally to the product of any

## action or effort. Between this wide and frequently figurative use of the

word and its application in the strict botanical sense treated below, there is a popular meaning, regarding the objects denoted by the word entirely from the standpoint of edibility, and differentiating them roughly from those other products of the soil, which, regarded similarly, are known as vegetables. In this sense "fruit" is applied to such seed-envelopes of plants as are edible, either raw or cooked, and are usually sweet, juicy or of a refreshing flavour. But applications of the word in this sense are apt to be loose and shifting according to the fashion of the time.

Fruit, in the botanical sense, is developed from the flower as the result of fertilization of the ovule. After fertilization various changes take place in the parts of the flower. Those more immediately concerned in the process, the anther and stigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style often remain for some time; the floral envelopes become dry, the petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain persistent in an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged, forming the _pericarp_; and the ovules are developed as the seeds, containing the embryo-plant. The term fruit is strictly applied to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior; but it often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts and floral envelopes. Thus the fruit of the hazel and oak consists of the ovary enveloped by the bracts; that of the apple and pear, of the ovary and floral receptacle; and that of the pine-apple, of the whole inflorescence. Such fruits are sometimes distinguished as _pseudocarps_. In popular language, the fruit includes all those parts which exhibit a striking change as the result of fertilization. In general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertilization has been effected; but cases occur as the result of cultivation in which the fruit swells and becomes to all appearance perfect, while no seeds are produced. Thus, there are seedless oranges, grapes and pineapples. When the ovules are unfertilized, it is common to find that the ovary withers and does not come to maturity; but in the case of bananas, plantains and bread-fruit, the non-development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth and a greater succulence of fruit.

The fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single carpel or of several. It may have one cell or cavity, being _unilocular_; or many, _multilocular_, &c. The number and nature of the divisions depend on the number of carpels and the extent to which their edges are folded inwards. The appearances presented by the ovary do not always remain permanent in the fruit. Great changes are observed to take place, not merely as regards the increased size of the ovary, its softening or hardening, but also in its internal structure, owing to the suppression, additional formation or enlargement of parts. Thus, in the ash (fig. 1) an ovary with two cells, each containing an ovule attached to a central placenta, is changed into a unilocular fruit with one seed; one ovule becomes abortive, while the other, g, gradually enlarging until the septum is pushed to one side, unites with the walls of the cell, and the placenta appears to be parietal. In the oak and hazel, an ovary with three and two cells respectively, and two ovules in each, produces a one-celled fruit with one seed. In the coco-nut, a trilocular and triovular ovary produces a one-celled, one-seeded fruit. This abortion may depend on the pressure caused by the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from non-fertilization of all the ovules and consequent non-enlargement of the carpels. Again, by the growth of the placenta, or the folding inwards of parts of the carpels, divisions occur in the fruit which did not exist in the ovary. In _Cathartocarpus Fistula_ a one-celled ovary is changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a separate cell, in consequence of spurious dissepiments being produced horizontal from the inner wall of the ovary. In flax (_Linum_) by the folding inwards of the back of the carpels a five-celled ovary becomes a ten-celled fruit. In _Astragalus_ the folding inwards of the dorsal suture converts a one-celled ovary into a two-celled fruit; and in _Oxytropis_ the folding of the ventral suture gives rise to a similar change. The development of cellular or pulpy matter, and the enlargement of parts not forming whorls of the flower, frequently alter the appearance of the fruit, and render it difficult to discover its formation. In the gooseberry (fig. 29), grape, guava, tomato and pomegranate, the seeds nestle in pulp formed by the placentas. In the orange the pulpy matter surrounding the seeds is formed by succulent cells, which are produced from the inner partitioned lining of the pericarp. In the strawberry the receptacle becomes succulent, and bears the mature carpels on its convex surface (fig. 2); in the rose there is a fleshy hollow receptacle which bears the carpels on its concave surface (fig. 3). In the juniper the scaly bracts grow up round the seeds and become succulent, and in the fig (fig. 4) the receptacle becomes succulent and encloses an inflorescence.

[Illustration:

Fig. 1.--Samara or winged fruit of Ash (_Fraxinus_). 1, Entire, with its wing a; 2, lower portion cut transversely, to show that it consists of two cells; one of which, l, is abortive, and is reduced to a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged and filled with a seed g.

Fig. 2.--Fruit of the Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_), consisting of an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small dry seed-like fruits (achenes). (After Duchartre.)

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

Fig. 3.--Fruit of the Rose cut vertically. s', Fleshy hollowed receptacle; s, persistent sepals; _fr_, ripe carpels; e, stamens, withered.

Fig. 4.--Peduncle of Fig (_Ficus Carica_), ending in a hollow receptacle enclosing numerous male and female flowers.

Fig. 5.--Fruit of Cherry (_Prunus Cerasus_) in longitudinal section. ep, Epicarp; m, mesocarp; en, endocarp.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer.]

The pericarp consists usually of three layers, the external, or _epicarp_ (fig. 5, ep); the middle, or _mesocarp_, m; and the internal, or _endocarp_, _en_. These layers are well seen in such a fruit as the peach, plum or cherry, where they are separable one from the other; in them the epicarp forms what is commonly called the skin; the mesocarp, much developed, forms the flesh or pulp, and hence has sometimes been called _sarcocarp_; while the endocarp, hardened by the production of woody cells, forms the _stone_ or _putamen_ immediately covering the kernel or seed. The pulpy matter found in the interior of fruits, such as the gooseberry, grape and others, is formed from the placentas, and must not be confounded with the sarcocarp. In some fruits, as in the nut, the three layers become blended together and are indistinguishable. In bladder senna (_Colutea arborescens_) the pericarp retains its leaf-like appearance, but in most cases it becomes altered both in consistence and in colour. Thus in the date the epicarp is the outer brownish skin, the pulpy matter is the mesocarp or sarcocarp, and the thin papery-like lining is the endocarp covering the hard seed. In the medlar the endocarp becomes of a stony hardness. In the melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, while the mesocarp forms the bulk of the fruit, differing in texture and taste in its external and internal parts. The rind of the orange consists of epicarp and mesocarp, while the endocarp forms partitions in the interior, filled with pulpy cells. The part of the pericarp attached to the peduncle is the base, and the point where the style or stigma existed is the apex. This latter is not always the apparent apex, as in the case of the ovary; it may be lateral or even basilar. The style sometimes remains in a hardened form, rendering the fruit _apiculate_; at other times it falls off, leaving only traces of its existence. The presence of the style or stigma serves to distinguish certain single-seeded pericarps from seeds.

[Illustration:

FIG. 6.--Seed-vessel or capsule of Campion, opening by ten teeth at the apex. The calyx c is seen surrounding the seed-vessel.

FIG. 7.--Capsule of Poppy, opening by pores p, under the radiating peltate stigma s.]

Dehiscence of fruits.

When the fruit is mature and the seeds are ripe, the carpels usually give way either at the ventral or dorsal suture or at both, and so allow the seeds to escape. The fruit in this case is _dehiscent_. But some fruits are _indehiscent_, falling to the ground entire, and the seeds eventually reaching the soil by their decay. By dehiscence the pericarp becomes divided into different pieces, or _valves_, the fruit being univalvular, bivalvular or multivalvular, &c., according as there are one, two or many valves. The splitting extends the whole length of the fruit, or is partial, the valves forming teeth at the apex, as in the order Caryophyllaceae (fig. 6). Sometimes the valves are detached only at certain points, and thus dehiscence takes place by pores at the apex, as in poppy (fig. 7), or at the base, as in _Campanula_. Indehiscent fruits are either dry, as the nut, or fleshy, as the cherry and apple. They are formed of one or several carpels. In the former case they usually contain only a single seed, which may become so incorporated with the pericarp as to appear to be naked, as in the grain of wheat and generally in grasses. In such cases the presence of the remains of style or stigma determines their true nature.

[Illustration:

FIG. 8.--Dry dehiscent fruit. The pod (legume) of the Pea; r, the dorsal suture; b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds.

From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.

FIG. 9.--(1) Fruit or capsule of Meadow Saffron (_Colchicum autumnale_), dehiscing along the septa (septicidally); (2) same cut across, showing the three chambers with the seeds attached along the middle line (axile placentation).

FIG. 10.--Diagram to illustrate the septicidal dehiscence in a pentalocular capsule. The loculaments l correspond to the number of the carpels, which separate by splitting through the septa, s.

FIG. 11.--The seed vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce (_Iris_), opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the septa in the centre, and the opening takes place through the back of the loculaments. Each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous carpels.

FIG. 12.--Diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. The loculaments l, split at the back, and the valves separate, bearing the septa s on their centres.

FIG. 13.--Diagram to illustrate septifragal dehiscence, in which the dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments l, and the valves separate from the septa s, which are left attached to the placentas in the centre.]

Dehiscent fruits, when composed of single carpels, may open by the ventral suture only, as in the paeony, hellebore, _Aquilegia_ (fig. 28) and _Caltha_; by the dorsal suture only, as in magnolias and some _Proteaceae_, or by both together, as in the pea (fig. 8) and bean; in these cases the dehiscence is _sutural_. When composed of several united carpels, two types of dehiscence occur--a longitudinal and a transverse. In the longitudinal the separation may take place by the dissepiments throughout their length, so that the fruit is resolved into its original carpels, and each valve represents a carpel, as in rhododendron, _Colchicum_, &c.; this dehiscence, in consequence of taking place through the septum, is called _septicidal_ (figs. 9, 10). The valves separate from their commissure, or central line of union, carrying the placentas with them, or they leave the latter in the centre, so as to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical or prismatic shape. Dehiscence is _loculicidal_ when the union between the edges of the carpels is persistent, and they dehisce by the dorsal suture, or through the back of the loculaments, as in the lily and iris (figs. 11, 12). In these cases each valve consists of a half of each of two contiguous carpels. The placentas either remain united to the axis, or they separate from it, being attached to the septa on the valves. When the outer walls of the carpels break off from the septa, leaving them attached to the central column, the dehiscence is said to be _septifragal_ (fig. 13), and where, as in _Linum catharticum_ and _Calluna_, the splitting takes place first of all in a septicidal manner, the fruit is described as _septicidally septifragal_; while in other cases, as in thorn apple (_Datura Stramonium_), where the splitting is at first loculicidal, the dehiscence is _loculicidally septifragal_. In all those forms the separation of the valves takes place either from above downwards or from below upwards. In _Saxifraga_ a splitting for a short distance of the ventral sutures of the carpels takes place, so that a large apical pore is formed. In the fruit of Cruciferae, as wallflower (fig. 14), the valves separate from the base of the fruit, leaving a central _replum_, or frame, which supports the false septum formed by a prolongation from the parietal placentas on opposite sides of the fruit, extending between the ventral sutures of the carpels. In Orchidaceae (fig. 15) the pericarp, when ripe, separates into three valves in a loculicidal manner, but the midribs of the carpels, to which the placentas are attached, often remain adherent to the axis both at the apex and base after the valves bearing the seeds have fallen. The other type of dehiscence is transverse, or _circumscissile_, when the upper part of the united carpels falls off in the form of a lid or operculum, as in _Anagallis_ and in henbane (_Hyoscyamus_) (fig. 16).

[Illustration:

FIG. 14.--Siliqua or seed-vessel of Wallflower (_Cheiranthus Cheiri_), opening by two valves, which separate from the base upwards, leaving the seeds attached to the dissepiment which is supported by the replum.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

FIG. 15.--Capsule of an Orchid (_Xylobium_). v, valve.

FIG. 16.--Seed-vessel of _Anagallisarvensis_, opening by circumscissile dehiscence.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

FIG. 17.--Lomentum of _Hedysarum_ which, when ripe, separates transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.

FIG. 18.--Fruit of _Geranium pratense_, after splitting.]

Sometimes the axis is prolonged beyond the base of the carpels, as in the mallow and castor-oil plant, the carpels being united to it throughout their length by their faces, and separating from it without opening. In the Umbelliferae the two carpels separate from the lower part of the axis, and remain attached by their apices to a prolongation of it, called a _carpophore_ or _podocarp_, which splits into two (fig. 25) and suspends them; hence the fruit is termed a _cremocarp_, which divides into two _mericarps_. The general term _schizocarp_ is applied to all dry fruits, which break up into two or more one-seeded indehiscent mericarps, as in _Hedysarum_ (fig. 17). In the order Geraniaceae the styles remain attached to a central column, and the mericarps separate from below upwards, before dehiscing by their ventral suture (fig. 18). Carpels which separate one from another in this manner are called _cocci_. They are well seen in the order Euphorbiaceae, where there are usually three such carpels, and the fruit is termed tricoccus. In many of them, as _Hura crepitans_, the cocci separate with great force and elasticity. In many leguminous plants, such as _Ornithopus_, _Hedysarum_ (fig. 17), _Entada_, _Coronilla_ and the gum-arabic plant (_Acacia arabica_), the fruit becomes a schizocarp by the formation of transverse partitions from the folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separations taking place at these partitions.

Fruits are formed by one flower, or are the product of several flowers combined. In the former case they are either _apocarpous_, of one mature carpel or of several separate free carpels; or _syncarpous_, of several carpels, more or less completely united. When the fruit is composed of the ovaries of several flowers united, it is usual to find the bracts and floral envelopes also joined with them, so as to form one mass; hence such fruits are known as multiple, confluent or _anthocarpous_. The term simple is applied to fruits which are formed by the ovary of a single flower, whether they are composed of one or several carpels, and whether these carpels are separate or combined.

[Illustration: From Vines' _Students' Text-Book of Botany_, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.

FIG. 19.--Dry one-seeded fruit of dock (_Rumex_) cut vertically. ov, Pericarp formed from ovary wall; s, seed; e, endosperm; pl, embryo with radicle pointing upwards and cotyledons downwards--enlarged.

FIG. 20.--Achene of _Ranunculus arvensis_ in longitudinal section; e, endosperm; pl, embryo. (After Baillon, enlarged.)

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav Fischer.

FIG. 21.--Fruit of Common Sycamore (_Acer Pseudoplatanus_), dividing into two mericarps m; s, pedicel; fl, wings (nat. size).]

Dispersal of fruit or seed.